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a RABIN TUT EN RR Ca 


[-=-2 ei ‘THE 2 Al 


CULTIVATOR: Ss ALMANAC|| 
: Re oa ae 


AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE, 


: FoR THE YEAR 


BY WM. BUCKMINSTER. 


‘BOSTON ; 
“PUBLISHED BY H. B. WILLIAMS. 


THE 


CULTIVATOR’S ALMANAC. 


AND 
CA BEN Ed 


OF 


AGRICULTURAL KNOWLEDGE, 


FO} R Se Bs Yor Avrke 


=e 
ee Pitas Te Sty << 
S&S) <S 


ee 


BY WILLIAM BUCKMINSTER. 


BOSTON : 


PUBLISHED BY H. B. WILLIAMS. 


1841. 


PREFACE. 


Encouraged by the favorable reception of the Cultivator’s Alma- 
nac for the year 1840, we are induced to offer to the Farmers and 
Mechanics of the United States, a work of similar character for 
the year 1841. 

This cheap and easy mode of communicating information on the 
improvements in farming and in the mechanic arts, is now duly ap- 
preciated by the public, and we can scarce think there is an indi- 
vidual in the Union, zealously engaged in such pursuits, who will 
think his interest promoted by an expenditure of one fourth of a 
dollar for a book of this kind. 

The reading matter is all original, and written with a view of 
giving practical hints to husbandmen in a concise form; pointing 
out the improvements which have been made in latter years, and re- 
minding farmers of the proper times of the year when they should 
take advantage of them. 

We hope to see the time when our fields will be better cultivated 
and covered with luxuriant harvests—when every acre will be made 
to contribute something to the owner’s welfare, and when by means 
of good implements we can make lighter the labors of the field. 

Much of our best fand lies wholly unproductive, when nothing but 
alittle attention is needed to render them beautiful and profitable. 
A little labor applied at the right moment often saves great expense 


A little land well tilled is better than large tracts neglected. 


2.3 Je OY Bike ve 


CONTENTS. 


Page. Page. 
Agricultural PDS, +e. .» A7| Fall Feeding, . - 105 
APRIL, 57 | Fall Manure, - - 108 
AvuGusT, - - 90) Forests, - 120 
Beginning of the Seasons, 7 | Guarding Winter Cellars, 44 
Butter, Winter, - 49 | Grain, Securing, - 46-86 
Butter, to be kept, - 50] Green Sward, Seeding Grass, 98 
Barley, - - 55 | Grapes and Peaches, #099 
Buckwheat, > - 56}]Home, Comfort of, - 40 
Broadcast Sowing, - 58 | Hogs, - - - 52 
Building, - - - 61] Hoed Crops, - - 54 
Barn, Cellars, - 62| Haying, - - 83-85 
Barn and Outhouses, Loon. Harvest, Corn, . 101 
tion of, - : - 64] Horse, the, - - 114 
Butter Making, - 72,73| Horse Manure, - 117 
Borer, - - 79,80| Ice for Summer, - - A7 
Cellars for Winter, - 44 | Insects, - - 87 
Chronological Cycle,’ - 7| Indian Corn, - - 103 
Cold Weather, - - 41 | Illinois Prairies, - 105 
Corn and Grain Securing, 46-99 | January, - - - 37 
Carding Cattle, - 47 | January Weather, - o7 
Corn Lands of Virginia, - 53|JuNE, - - - 7% 
Compost-Manure, - 68|Juty, - - - 83 
Cornfields, - - 69] Leaves of Trees, - 75 
Canker Worms, Remedies Low Lands,_~ - 90, MN, 122 
for - - - 78, 106 | Low Lands, bringing into 
Caterpillars, - - 8i English, - 92 
Clover, - - 85 | Lake “Erie, - - 107 
Corn Stalks, - - 98) Milk for Market, - - 48 
Corn Harvest, - - 101 | Marcu, 53 
Corn Harvest in Vitginia and Manuring for English Grain, 57 
South, - - - 102] Mechanics Labor, - - 65 
Corn, Indian, - - 103] May, - - 67 
Cutting Timber, - - 118|Manures, 67, 68, 108, 117, 124 
Calves, Raising, - 120 | Milking, - - 71, 109 
Clearing Low Lands, - 122|Meadow Grasses, 85, 94, 95 
. Drill Husbandry, - 59 | Meadow, Paring and Burning, 93 
Dairy, the, - - 71 |Mathematical Learning, - “118 
DEcEMBER, - - 117 | Morning and Evening Star’ 9 
Eclipses . = - 9/Navigable Waters of llinois, 106 
Early Sowing, . - 57] NovemBer, - - 108 
FEBRUARY, = - . 45 | Neat Stock, - - iil 
February Weather, - 45 | November Ploughing, - 113 
Farm Building, - 61 | Oats, . 54, 87 
Farm House, ‘Location of, 63 Occultations, - - 9 
Fruit Trees for Shade, -. 76| Octozer, - - 101 
Fruits in July, = 88 | Ox Teams, - -. 115 
Fall Seeding, = 97 | Ploughing for Spring Grains, 58 
Fencing, - 102, 119 Protection of Buildings, 64 


bag O Nee 


4 CONTENTS. 

Page. Page. 
Planting, - - -  67| Statistics of Manufactures 34 
Potatoes, : - 70,100| Sheep, - : 110 
Peach Trees, Worms in, 81| Subsoil Ploughing, - 112 
Paring and Burning, - 3| Tending Cattle, - 46 
Peaches and Grapes, - 99|The Vacuum of the Ancients, 51 
Priaries in [llinois, - 105} Thick Sowing, - - 69 
Ploughing in November, 113} Transplanting Trees, - 60 
Right of the Strongest, - 41) Tilting among Corn, - 7 
Randolph’s, John, Plantation, 53|'The Borer, - - 79,80 
mye, * - - 55, 104} Tilling, - 82 
Rocks, Digging’ of, - 103] TurningMeadow to English 94,95 


Reading for: Parnes and Me- 


chanics, - - 118 
Raising Calves, - - 120 
Rates of Postage. - 36 


Signs of the Zodiac ee 
School Teachers, - 
Securing Corn and pea Ne 46, +1 
Sown Crops, 


Spring Grain, Ploughing For, 53 
Sowing thick, - 60 
Seeds, on Sowing, - 96 
SEPTEMBER, . - 97 
Seeding in the Fall, ULE f 
Seeding Grass on Green 
Sward, OF 


Shocking the Whole Com, 
Stone Walls, . 103 


Turnips, - 100 
Tobacco Raising, - - 102 
Thanksgiving, - - 109 
The Horse, - - 114-117 
Timber Cutting, - - 118 
Trees by the Wayside, 122 


Useful Birds, - - 77 


Variation of the Seasons, - 56 
Winter Evenings, - 39 
Winter Schooling, - 42 
Winter Butter, - 49 
Wheat, - . 55, 104 
Worms in Peach Trees, 81 
Worms in Gardens, - 87 
Winter Wheat and Rye, 104 
Winter Calves, - - 121 


ALMANAC 


FOR THE YEAR 


Is4l. 


BEING THE LATTER PART OF THE SIXTY FIFTH AND THE 
BEGINNING OF THE SIXTY SIXTH YEAR OF THE 
INDEPENDENCE OF THE U. STATES. 


Calculated for Boston, in lat. 42° 21’; New York, in lat. 40° 45’, and 
Washington, in lat. 380 53’, and consequently for the 
Northern half of the United States. 


= 


Entered according to an Act of Congress, in the year 1840, 
By H. B. WILLIAMS, 
In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 


Prentiss & Jones, Printers, No. 2, Water Street, Boston 


EXPLANATION OF THE CHARACTERS AND ABBREVI- 
ATIONS USED IN THIS ALMANAC. 


© The Sun. & Mars. 2 Ceres. 

© The Earth. Et Vesta. \. Jupiter. 

©DO CcThe Moon. 6 Juno. hh Saturn. 

% Mercury. 2 Pallas. Hi Herschel, or Uranus. 
@ Venus. 


G Conjunction, or having the same Longitude, or Right Ascension. 
(1D Quadrature, or differing 90° in @ 

§ Opposition, « “180° in a a Wie 

Q The ascending, ?§ the descending node. 

N. North; 8. South; 9 degrees ; ‘ minutes; ‘“ seconds of arc. 

h. hours; m. minutes; s. seconds of time. 

M.,m. Morning; A, a afternoon. 


SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC. 


1. ep Aries. 7. & Libra. 
ene 2.3 Taurus. prea ay 8. I Scorpio. 
gn: 3. I] Gemini. ape. 9. f Sagittarius. 
Summer § 4: Cancer. Winter § 19: ve Capricornus. 
sini 5. Q Leo. 11. «=, Aquarius. 
OTST: 6. yy Virgo. aii 12. # Pisces. 
S 
BEGINNING OF THE SEASONS. 
lis Me. Se 
Winter begins 1840, Dec. 21st, 0 4 56 
Spring “1841, March 20th, 1 19 50 M. Time 
Summer * June 20th, 22 25 41 at 
Autumn ¢ soy mepe. 22d, 12 25 53 | Washington. 
Winter “*  ~ Dee? 2st; 5 47 50 
Length of Winter Signs : : . 89 1 14 54 
r Spring . : : ; ¥ 92 21 5 51 
J Summer . s ’ 4 93 14 0 12 
sf Autumn ‘ 89 17 21 57 
Sun north of Equator (Spring and Summer) {e0*lLb G3 
“ south ‘¢ (Winter and Autumn) 178 18 36 51 


Length of the tropical year, commencing 
at the winter solstice 1840, and termi- 365 5 42 54 
nating at the winter solstice 1841, 

Mean or average length of the tropical year 305 5 48 48 


CHRONOLOGICAL CYCLES. 


Dominical Letter . : : ie Solar Cycle. : 2 
Epact . Roman Indiction 15 
Lunar Cycle, : or Golden Number 18 Julian Period . ; 6554 


MOVABLE FESTIVALS OF ' OF THE CHURCH, IN 1841. 
Septuagesima Sunday, Feb. 7th | Rogation Sunday, May 16th 
Quing. or Shrove do. ‘“ 2Ist | Ascen. DayorHoly Th. “ 20th 
Ash Wed. Lent begins, “ 24th | Whitsund. or Pentecost, “ 30th 


Mid Lent Sunday, Mar. 21st | Trinity Sunday, ‘June 6th 
Palm “ April 4th | Corpus Christi Day,2 = & 40th 
Easter “ * 1th | Féte Dieu, 


Low “ ‘© 18th | Advent Sunday Nov. 28th 


ECLIPSES IN 1841. 


In the year 1841, there will be six eclipses; viz. four of the Sun 
and two of the Moon; the latter will be visible in the United States, 
as follows, viz. 

I. Friday, January 22d. A very small eclipse of the Sun. Be- 
ginning of the Eclipse_on the Earth at 11h. 47m. M. End of the 
eclipse on the Earth at Oh.45m.A. This eclipse will be visible only 
in a small part of the Southern Ocean, and will not touch any inhab- 
ited region. 

II. Friday, February 5th. A total eclipse of the Moon, visible 
throughout the United States as follows. 


Kclipse | Tot.eclip.| Tot.eclip. | Whole eclipse 


- 


begins. begins. ends. ends. 

h. m. h.m h.m h. m. 
Albany, -7 25.38A. | 8 22.7A.110 0.3A.|10 57.7A. 
Augusta, Me. 7 41.0 8 38.4 {10160 |11 13.4 
Baltimore, 7 13.8 8 11.2 9 48.8 |10 46.2 
Bangor, 7 45.1 842.5 {10201 (11175 
Boston, 7 36.0 8 33.4. |11011.0 |11 84 
Buffalo, N. Y. 7 AT 8 2,1 9 39.7. {10 37.1 
Cincinnati, 6 42.5 7 39.9 9175 |10 14.9 
Detroit, 6 48.4 7 45.8 9 23.4 |10 20.8 
. Hartford, 7 29.6 8 27.0 |10 46 -|11 2.0 
Lexington, Ky. 6 43.1 7 40.5 9°18.1 9 990 15.5 
St. Louis, Mo. 6 21.9 7 196 8 56.9 9 54.3 
New York, 7 24.2 8 23.6 9 59.2 | 10 56.6 
Philadelphia, 7 19.6 8 17.0 9 54.6 |10 52.0 
Pittsburg, 7 02 7 57.6 9 35.2 |10 32.6 
Portland, Me. 7 38.9 8 36.3 |10 13.9 {11 11.3 
Richmond, 7 10.5 87.9 9455 |10 42.9 
Springfield, Ill. 6 22.1 7195 8 57.1 9 54.5 
Springfield, Mass. | 7 29.9 8 27.3 110,49 |11 23 
Washington, D.C.| 7 12.2 S 356 9 47.2 |10 44.6 
Worcester, Mass. | 7 33.1 8-306 |2O eBay 12135 


Mean Time of the respective places. 

Although on this occasion, and in the Eclipse of the 2d of August, 
the moon will be totally immersed in the shadow of the Earth for 
the space of about an hour and two-thirds, it is not probable she will 
entirely disappear, but will remain visible of the color of tarnished 
copper. Total eclipses have, however, (as it is said,) occurred, in 
which the Moon became quite invisible. 

Til. Sunday, February 21st. A small eclipse of the Sun. 

The Eclipse will be visible in the northeastern part of North Amer- 
ica, in Iceland, the North Atlantic Ocean and Greenland, and per- 
haps also in the northern part of Scotland. 

IV. Sunday, July 18th. <A partial Eclipse of the Sun. 

This Eclipse will be visible in the northern part of North America, 
the greater part of Europe, and the western part of Asia. The line 
of the southern boundary of the Eclipse passes over Great Britain, 
France, and Italy. In Ireland and England, the Sun will not be 
eclipsed. 

_Y. Monday, August 2d. <A total Eelipse of the Moon, partly 
visible throughout the United States, as follows, viz. 


ECLIPSES. 9 


Eclipse |Tot. Eclip.|Middle of Tot.Eclip.;Moon sets 

begins. begins. Eclipse. ends. eclipsed. 

toe bE ire, Eee) eit ta, | Bete 
Albany, 3 8.5M./4 13.6M.|5 5.8M.5 57.9M.|4 55M. 
Augusta, Me. 3 242 (429.3 2 26.5 .-/6013.6 4 52 
Baltimore, 257.0 \4 21 15 543%(5 46.48 15 3 
Bangor, 3293 [4334 (5 256 617.7 |4 49 
Boston, 319.2 /4243 [5165 6 86 14 56 
Buffalo, 2479 |3 53.0 |4 452 5 37.3 (|4 56 
Cincinnati, 2 25.7 43 30.8: |4:23.0 5.151 715-36 
Detroit, 231.6 |3 36.7 |4 28.9 [5 21.0 14 57 
Tartford, Ct. 3128 [4179 (5101 6 22 (4 57 
Lexington, Ky. 2 26.3.8 3).4. 2/4 23:65 35.7% <5 6 
*Little Rock, 154.7 12598 |3 520 4441 |5 14 
Louisville, 2215 |8 266 (4188 5109 [5 6 
*St. Louis, 2 5.1 (810.2 [4-24.14 54. 5 6 
Montreal, > 92 (4143 15 65 [5 58.6- |4 49 
New Bedford, 319.8) 1425.9 [5 171-16 92 |4 57 
New Haven, 3116 [416.7 (5 89-66-10 (|4 58 
New York, 3.74 (4125 |5 4.7 5568 |5 O 
Philadelphia, ee, ene eae ee fo SOO. eS 
Pittsburg, 2434 (3485 |4 40.7 (5328 [5 1 
Portland, Me. poae.L A 242. 415. 19.4596 1h 914.54 
*Springfield, Il. epesiiio 104. Act Geiasay 5.4 
Springfield, Mass. |3 13.1 |4182 [5104 [6 25 /4 57 
Washington, D.C. |2554 |4 05 |4 52.7 [5448 (5 4 
Worcester, Mass. 3163 {4214 [513.6 j6 5.7 [4 56 


Mean Time of the respective places. 

The end of this Eclipse will take place 1h. 5.2m. after the end of 
the total Eclipse, (or after the Moon begins to emerge from the 
shadow of the Earth,) but it will not be visible in any part of the 
United States. indeed, the end of the total eclipse will be visible at 
those only of the places in the above table, which are marked with an 
asterisk. The remark made on the probable appearance of the Moon 
in the Eclipse of the 5th of February, may be also made on this 
Eclipse; viz. that the Moon, even when totally emersed in the 
shadow of the Earth, will not probably become quite invisible, but 
will assume the color and appearance of tarnished copper. 

VI. Monday, August 16th. A partial Eclipse of the Sun. 

This Eclipse will be visible only in the Great Southerm Ocean. 
The eastern part of New Holland will see it, as the western limit will 
pass over the following points; viz. 

_ Occultations. 'The most interesting Occultations in this country, 
in 1841, will be those of Venus on the mornings of March 26th and 
September 12th, and of the Pleiades on January 4th, February 27th, 
March 26th, June 17th, September 7th, October 4th, and November 
27th ; but there will not, this year, be any Occultation of a star of 
the first or second magnitude, visible to us. 
MORNING AND EVENING STARS. 

The planet Venus will be Evening Star till May 14th, thence 
Morning Star through the year. 

Jupiter will be Morning Star till June 5th, thence Evening Star till 
December 23d, and then again Morning Star. 

Mars will also be Morning Star till April 17th, thence Evening Star 
to the end of the year. 

Saturn dikewise will be Morning Star till June 21st, thence Eve- 
ning Star till December 27th, when he will again be Morning Star. 


10 January, First Month, begins on Friday. [18A4\1. 


Twiliight begins and ends. Mean time.. 


Ist day. 7th day. || 13th day. 19th aay. 25th day. 
Beg’s|Ends.||Beg’s| Ends. Beg’s| Ends.||Beg’s| Ends.)|Beg’s| Ends. 
h. m.{h. fa. ||h. m. |h. m.| hem. h. m. ||h.m. |h. m. h.m.{b. m. 
Boston, 548m/6 20a//548m/6 24a 548m/6 29al|[547m|6 85 a\|544m/6 42 a 
New York [546 |6 22 ||546 |6 26 faye 6 31 |[545 16 37 ||542 |6 44 
Wasting n|543 |6 25 |/5 44 |6 29 |'544 |6 34 }/543 |6 39 ||541 16 45 
= td Sun’s upper limb rises and sets. High water. 
isles) Ae > (Hey ole ag 5 = 
B/E |2ezg (p22? F243] 2 | s 
ala |. a8 ZLO OF = Z 
re rises | sets. \rises | sets. |rises | sets; 
.m.{h. m./h.m.|h.m.jh.m.|h.m.| h. m. h. m. 
LF. |7 304 387 2514 43)7 19/4 49, 4 45 a | 2 25a 
ais. | 30) 39] 25 44) 19| 501538 | 3 18 
3\Su.|7 304 407 254 45'7 19/4 51] 6 55a) 4 35a 
4\M 30, 41| 25 46) 19} 52) 8 21 6 1 
5|Tu.| 30) 42) 25 47) 19) 53) 9 31 ri 
6|W 30, 43) 25) 48 19} 54/10 S6 8 16 
WTh.| 30) 44 25 49) 19) 55/11 30 9 10 
| BEF 30). 45). 25) 50; 19 56 ree 10° 2 
9S. 30, 46) 25) 51) 19) 57) O 22 m/{10 49 
10, Su. |4 294 477 24/4 52'7 1914 58 1 Omill 35a 
11\M 29| 48) 24)- 53; 18) 59) 1 55 Pan 
12\Tu.| 29). 49) 24 54 185 O| 2 41 O 2im 
13|}W 28; 50) 23) 55 18 1; 3 18 0 58 
14/Th.| 28) 51) 23) 56) 17 21 3 58 1 38 
15\F. 2h OO eel OO kd 3] 4 32 2 ite 
16)S. elit OAL bite cake ay. Lica Oo same 
17|Su. |7 26.4 557 215 O7 165 5 6 37m|417m 
18M. | 26 i Si} 1 16} ) 6) 8 0° 1°5 46 
19 6 2D HOB. t2Ole Bh nh Ohi Wie8 EG 6 56 
20, W D459) al 9) ee8)) 1411810012 7 52 
21Th.4 2515 0) 19) o 4.44 ee 10:68 8 38 
22\F. Cob tA FOL 0. Ole bo). LOTT 36 9 16 
23S. OA dOsicd gt W112) 12} 0 11 a} 9 


24)Su./7 215 4/7 175 87 125 13) 0 45 a [10 25 m 
25M. | 20; 5 16 9 Il} 14,114 {10 54 
26/Tu.| 20; 6 15) 10) 10) 15) 1 46 {11 26 
ZW.) 19 7 14 11} 10; 16) 2 20 0 Oa 
maces 18. 94 dS. 9) Oe 0 34 
29\F 17) 10) 13) 14 8. 19) 3 27 i bear ae 
30)S 16 ily 12} 15) 8 20;4 9 1 49 


ao soe oS SO -O | a eS 


1841. | January has Thirty-one Days. ll 


Phases of the Moon. 


Full Moon, 7th day, 9h.50.1m. M 
Last Quarter, 14th “© 7 29 M. 
New Moon, aa eS de a0 - M. 

M. 


First Quarter, 30th “ 5 521 


Moon rises er sets. 


cS one 
5 Be ui § pe Se 
< ae as Ebe 3 a2 Sunpays, &c. 
| £2 | 84 lee | FS 
sets. | sets sets. 
hema | Bem?) bom...) hom, 
116387 a | 0 36m) 0 34m) O 33m/Earth nearest the Sun. 
7S 285) P47 2) 143" 1 4 
S.| 8 25m] 3 4m} 2 59 al 2 55ml2a Sun. after Christmas. 
4.927 | 423 | 417 | 412 16% },h55 South, * p 28. 
51034 | 539 | 532 | 5 26 |C.P.Bos. C.C.Cam. Ply. 
6|11 41 | reses. | rises. | rises. \Bpiphany. 
i) he 449a\ 456a 5 Qa D Perigee. 
8| 0 45m) 6 13 | 618 | 6 22 |Bat. New Orleans, 1815. 
9145 | 734 | 738 | 7 40 
S.| 239ml 8 50a) 8 53.al 8 54 altct Sun. af. Epiph.K D dQ 
11} 328 10 3 |10 4 |10 4 
12,415 j1113 {11.13 j11 12 
13} 459.|...  }]... |... . Steamer Lexington des. 1840, 
14, 5 44 | O 20m! 019m) 0 16m\d)p 2. 
15,629 | 127 | 124 | 120 
16/ “16 |.283 4 229 02-23 
S.| 8 5m| 3 37m! 3 32m) 3 26misd S. after Epiph. KD M- 
18,855 | 437 | 431 | 424 Igpy. 
119) 9 46 5 31 925 | 518 IsopDh. D Apogee. 
2010 36 |618 |612 | 6 5 
21/11 26 | sets. | sets. | sets. |d D %. Ind. acknowl. 1783. 
290 134i 5 2a ow ba ds 12a 
931059 |6 6 |610 | 614 [4thKD Sz. 
S.| 142m) 711 al 7 13a} 7 17 al4th Sun. after Epiph.k § Hi, 
95} 224 |816 | 817 | 819 |Conv. of St.Paul. [23 1-28. 
96) 3. 6 | 921 4 T2P4 9-21. | o6DeR,a) FZ, 
271 348 }10 27 1026 |10 23 |x) x Ceti. 
28| 433 |11 36 {11 33 {11 31 
Bors 2b 1... |. tl) a. |S statonary. 
30| 6 14 |0 47m) 0 43m) 0 39m 
S!}712a! 2 Im! 155m! 1 51m/5th S.af. Epip.c p Pleiades. 


ie et SRR ict Sb Nek 
12 February, Second Month, begins on Monday. {1841 


Twilight begins and ends. Mean time. 


Ist day. 7th day. 13th day. | 19th day. | 25th day. 

Beg’s| Ends ||Beg’s| Ends.||Beg’s| Ends, Beg? s|Ends.\|Beg’s| Ends. 
h. m |h. m, h. m.|h. m. h. m.j|h. m. ih. m. .m. ||h. m.|h. m. 
Boston, 588m/6 50 a}|5 32m|6 56a/|526m/7 3alihb18m)|7 10a\|5 9m|7 17a 
New York,|537 |6 51 {1531 |6 57 ||[525 |7 4 5 18 {710 {510 |7 14 
Washing’n.|536 |6 52 |/5 31 |6 58 5 25 |7 4 1/518 {710 |/510 17 16 
= s Sun’s upper limb “idee and sets. High water. 
a1 8h dae ee oo 7H aes 
= = GA. 5 5 2 3 a 3 a oy o 
‘Lah ea Sp ge >) bo SQ . S S:o 3 oa ° 
° ° $202 i ES ea i) 5 mal oO 
BIE | Sees | FSS a8 8H a Bs 
a | 3 3 Oo & Aa oe ae) 8 45 oS co) 
014 fa Zi ie) OFn oa Zz 


rises | sets,|ruses | sets. |rises | sets. 


h.m./h. m. h.m.{h.m.{h.m.|h.m.| h. m. h. m. 
IM. |7 145 14)7 10/5 18)7 6/5 22}6 22 a|4 Qa 
OTe.) Pils uaa 9; 19 5} 25] 7 bt 5 37 
3iw.| 11} 16 8|~ 20 A) 24| 9 93 ope 
A/Th.| 10) 18 a 21 3} 2510 25 Soap 
SIF. 9) 19s TN] P22 2| 2611 B3 9°°3 
6\S. 290; =| = 23 1) eat Pe ee 
WSu.lt 75 22/7 45 25/7 05 28 0 10m |10 32 a 
S|M. Diguee 3} 26/6 59} 29) O 52 17,12 
9/Tu. 5| 25 Al el S| walt 1 BB 11 46 
10;w. 4} 26 1) 29|.° 57) 32) 2-6 ee 
11/Th. 2} 97/6 59} 30! 56) 33} 2 40 0 20m 
12/F. 1} 29 58 3Sil- 55) 34) 3 138 0 53 
13\S. Q} 30 | 33] D4) "B58 Bo 1 35 
14/Su.|6 5815 316 555 34/6 535 36) 4 42 m| 2 22m 
15|M. 57| 33) 54 35) 52: 38) 5-46 3 26 
16/Tu.| 55} 34) 52) 36). 50) 397 9 4 49 
17;w.| 54] 35) 51) 37 49) 40) 8 35 6 15 
18/Th.} 52) 3 50| 38} 48 41) 9 45 1 25 
19/F. 51; 38} 49) 39 47 4210 34 8 14 
20\S. 50} 39) 48 41; 46) 43/11 25 8 55 
21\Su.|6 4815 416 465 4216 445 45/11 50 m| 9 30m 
22\M. 47| 42) 45) 43) 43 46| 0 20a |10 O 
93/Tu.| 45} 43| 44). 44) 41) 47) O 49 10 29 
24\W 44| 45) 42) 46| 40, 48) 1 20 11 O 
25/Th 42; 46 41) 47 38 49) I 52 11 32 
26\F 40| 47 39) 48] 37) 50)2 23 0 3a 
2718 38} 48} 38 49) 35 51) 3 1 0 41 
28|Su. (6 37\5 496 365 506 345 52 351 a/1 38la 


Bee Se 


February has Twenty-eight Days. 


Phases of the Moon. 


Full Moon, Sth day, Sh. 57.7m. A. 
Last Quarter, 13th “ 1 304 M. 
New Moon, iat et eer ge INL. 
First Quarter, 28th “ 2 549 A. 


i mes Moon rises or sets. 
a/ 868 : ; af 

6 | 8.8 "oO | .3 =i 
a) ne sreet 1 4 CPt tees Sunpays, &c. 
ed hy Ore ee | ae 

ron) 08 ~ : ie mM a4 nm 

$ oo ar + 3 § 
a] ss ; 

Z, Cai > 


— | ————— | |S | | 


411 25 | rises. | rises. | rises. 
Blea &. 5 lal 5 Gal 510 aKD1I8Q _ ?P totally eclipsed, 
6} 0 2im!] 6 22 | 625 | 628 [visible in U.S. 


S.| 114m] 738 a} 740 a) 741 a Septuagesima Sunday. [1835 
Sickit Gilead OF to OU. | Saunt chitin South. Gintea! 
9) 250 110 2 10 O | 958 | Harrisonb.1773.[C.C.P.Cam 
10,336 |1111 |11 8 |11 5 3d HO 

(1) hie 202) il eel eR --- gpg 

12, 510 | 019m) 015m} 010m 

13). 059) 4 125°) 120 | 114 


—_—_| | _—  F _ 


S. 6 49m 2 28m 9 22m = 15m Sexagesima Sunday. 
e ie 3 25 319 312 C. P. Springfield. 

415.) 4 9 | 4°32 Apogee. 8.J.C.Ded 
Post] 27 eee | aa ee : 
1810 9 | 5382 | 528 | 522 
19110 55 6 0 5 BY 5 BO Op) i, a near approach. 


20 11 39 sets. | sets. | sets. [invisible in U. S. 


S.| 022 a) 6 Tal 6 8aj 611 alShrove Sunday. © eclipsed, 
reba eT 1 T1213 Washington b.1732. C.P.Len. 
148 | 819 | 818 | 818 |Mahomet.Y. 1257 beg.d $H 
24, 232 | 928 | 925 | 924 |Ash Wednesday. St.Mathias. 
25, 319 1038 {1034 |1031 

6 ‘ 1152 {1147 {11 42 


S.'6 4al 1 6m! 1 Om 054ml tst Sunday in Lent. 


4 March, Third Month, begins on Monday.  [1841. 
‘Twilight begins and ends. Mean time. 
Ist day. || 7th day. 13th day. | 19th day. 25th day. 
Beg’s| tinds.|| Beg’s; Ends.||Beg’s| Ends.||Beg’s| Ends.||Beg’s| Ends 
h.m.|h.m. |//h.m.}h.m. |Jh.m.}b.m. {{/h.m [h. m. {/h.m. |h. m. 
Boston, 5 8m|7 23 al|453m {7 29 a}/443m|737 al|/432m]7 45 420m}7 52 a 
N. York. [5 4 |792 ||454 |723 |[444 |735 |]434 |742 ||423 |7 49 
Washing’n.|5 5 [721 |[455 |727 |[446 |734 |[436 |749 |]426 1746 
a | od Sun’s upper limb rises and sets. High water. i) 
a] bs a rs Sarmes _ 
z\e |acdy |ged [eeee | 3 | 2 
sis |gs0" Rees |f22 | 2g | o%8 
2B (agsh | ses | sasa | g 
§|a | as ih BO" a | os Zi 
| rises | sets. (rises | sets. |rzses | sets. 
ih. m.{h. m. b. mh, m.{h.m.Jh.m.|} h. m. h. m. 
IM. 6 365 506 335 5116 33/5 53) 4 46 a | 2 26a 
2'Tu @A) 2 Sh ceS3h.b3). oll sal: Ge ma o ol 
aW.| 33162) a2. 53), 30) gaa 750 5 30 
4Th 3t| 54) 30). 55; - 23) .56)) 9 TS 6 53 
BF. 99} 55! 28) 56] 27 S710 17 Ot 
6'S. 981 56) 27 5%) 26| S811 8 8 48 
TSu.\6 2615 50/6 26 5 596 2:15 5911 54 a] 9 34a 
8, M. 95) SOP ESAS) Ol 256.40) Sere o 
9Tu.| 236 O| 23 his 21 1/ 0 27m {10 45 
{0O,W. QI Thue a Gly then 11 18 
Bae iby ete Be) bd 3} £18 SI A Se th 51 
12k. 17 Soha ie 41-16 A 9 1it ee: 
13\S. 16 4) 16 5} 615 5| 2 45 0 25m 
idiSu.'6 146 616 146 616 136 6] 3 24m|/1 4m 
15|M. 12 Ti" 12 vipat & Ti ta sco 1 49 
16/Tu.| 10 8| 10 8 10 oy apes as, he 
17 Ww. § 9 9 9 9 9| 6 30 4 10 
12’Th. Wee 10h,” “Teele "| SI1Gi 754 5 34 
19 F’. Sie | oily Sea igs 9 6 49 
20s. | 3 121 3] 12) 312/10 8 [7 48 
21 Su.6 20 146 26 136 26 1:10 45m} 8 25m 
99M. | O| 156 O| 14, 1] 14/11 21 |9 1 
23Tu.'5 59} 165 59) 156 0 15 11 59 9 30 
24W.| 57 17] 58} 165 58 16/020 {10 0 
95Th.| 55) 19} 56] 17| 56) 17) O 55 10 35 
9G6F. | 53} 20] 54] 18] 55} 18] 130 {If 10 
as. | Sal 21} 53! 19} 54| 19/2 9 {11 49 
98\Su. 5 506 22/5 5216 205 5316 20) 2 51 =| 0 dl 
29M. 48| 23) 50} 21] 51} 20) 3 44 1 24 
30/Tu. 46) 24) 48) 22 49| 21) 4 44 2 24 
a1lw.: 44! 25| 46] 23] 47| 22) 6 12 3 52 


S41] 
| 


|D. ot Month. 
Moon Souths. 


Mean Time. 


March has Thirty-one Days. 15 


Phases of the Moon. 


Full Moon, 7th day, Sh. 28.4m. M. 
Last Quarter, 14th “ 9 IL1 A. 
New Moon, Qde hte te ~eeiloes A. | 
First Quarter, 29th “ 9 504 A. | 
} 
| 
} 


Moon rises or sets. 


S § Fe) ae 

AS sO 3 | 3a Sunpays, &c. 

os ms g% Be 

6a A |ea BS ve 

sets. | sets. Sets. 

h.m.| h.m. | h.m. 
215m! 2 Sm) 2 YBm'St. David. [C, P. Were 
818 | 310 | 3 4 |*)387QO. Dr. Olbers d. 1840. 
410 | 4 4 | 359 | gat greatest E. elong. 18° &. 


450 | 445 | 440 | Begin. 27th Con. ) Perigee. 
rises. | rises. | rises, |4th.2at gr. E. elong. 46° 19’. 


—_— |__| | 


pooh jen 


6 24a) 6 25 al 6 25 ai2d Sunday in Lent. & p 91.Q 
1(87-178F \°?35 ([Od© CP. Com: Taum 
849 | 847 | 844 |*kpDyp C.C. Plym. 

0 0 | 957 | 953 

19 HI 5 {1059 


» Be le he 2 Sih Brey 
014m) 0 9m 0 2m)" 


114m) 1 8m} 1 1m/3d Sunday in Lent.g p Y 
2 Sh 2 2 155 |o)p Yy C. P. Sal. Greenfield. 


253 | 247 | 240 |Bowditch d. 1838, a. 65.) Ap. 
330 | 325 | 319 |st. Patrick. Boston ev. 7 
401356 | 352 

427 | 424 | 321 

450 | 448 | 446 |Spring begins. 


WD UC US 0S WS LO 

‘mF SD Or & CO > 

pry 

C9 09 1 — © = 

poet QOD Ed 

ES & Cr 3. CO. 29 
oo 


| 


G9 9 0 
mem Of 
~t FO Or 


| 715a) 713 a) 712 |ORO -C.C. Wor. Taun. 


S1lm| 511m) 5 9m/4thSun.in Lent. [C.P.Nor. 
sets. Sets, sets. {Newton d.1727. Goethe,1832. 


8 26 | 823 | 820 [the Year. 
941 | 936 | 932 Lady Day. Old beginning of| 


1056 |1050 |1045 *K%2 XX) Pleiades. 


11 55 


eS! | | SOC 


11 |1 4 | 058m 


0 
1 
wea, 1169 (158 
2 


48 | 243 | 238 |p Apogee. 


16 April, Fourth Month, begins on Thursday. 


Twilight begins and ends. Mean time. 
l 


(1841. 


st day. 7th day. |t 13th day. lyth day. |) 25th day. 

Beg?’s| Unds.|| Beg’s| Huds.|| Begs. | Ends. Beg’s.|Ends.||Beg’s| Ends. 

h.m.|/o.m. |/h. m.{h. m.|/h. m. |h. m.|i/h. m. |h. m. h.m. 1h; m. 
Boston, $ 7m}3 1al/355m/8 9al}3 43m]8 18 al/3 3im|8 27a /319ml8 37 
New York.}/411 |7 57 [/359 |8 5 1/13 48 |8 14 |/3 37 18 992 \'3 26 8 89 
Washing’n.|415 |7 53 |l4 4 |8 1 1/353 |8 9 [3 43 |3 17 |l393 |g 55 
a - Sun’s upper limb rises and sets. High water. 
ce di RRS Nea Cag er a) ; a 
S/F | oASs |EME | 2bse 5 a 
s\s |Ge3 |Sbey |Bees) 2% | &. 
oie | @eoec | eSe™ | eee $ = 
ole |As's & | on 9 AS RB - © 
ala ec Zaid OF W za Z 
i rises | sets. |rises | sets. \rises | sets. 

h.m h.m.jh.m h.m./b.m.'h.m.| h, m. h. m. 
WTh.|5 436 265 4516 2415 466 23) 7 44 a|5 24a 
Qik. 42| 98) 44) 26) 45 24.9 4 6 44. 
3iS. 40) 29| 42) 27) 43 2510 1 7 Ail 

“4 Su.|5 386 305 406 28'5 416 2610 47a | 8 27 a 
5\M. 36) -SLS7S8) 2° 29).340)| > B7115005 9 5 
6)Tu.! 84 S2ieeeGh “SO 230) wes tae 9 40 
TW lt $2)! SSimsaly ST Ss) 29 Om 10 17 
S/Ph:)' Sil 84) B8i982) e035) | 30) 0: 87 10 51 
OF. O9\) 35) WoL resSies5o) bot 11 11 28 
108. 271: 36) 29) 34.31) $24 48 mA 

11/Su.|5 266 37/5 286 355 306 33°2 20m|0 Om 
12|M. 


0 
0 
1 
1 
2 

24| 38) 26) 36) 28) 34) 2 59 0 39 
13|\Tu.} 23} 40) 25) 38) 27 35) 3 
14;W.| 21) 41; 23; 39; 26) 36) 4 
15|Th.| 19) 42) 21) 40, 24 37 5 
16)/F. 18} 43; 20) 41; 23) 38.4% 
8 


17S. 16} 44) 18} 42) 22) 39 
18)Su.15 146 45'5 166 4315 206 40/9 17m! 6 57m 
19M. | 13) 47| 15) 44! 19) 4110 oO % 40 
20/Tu.| 11} 48, 13) 45) 17] 42/10 40 8 20 


a11w.| 10) 49} 12 46} 16] 431116 | 8 56 
22'Th.| 8 50} 10 47 14, 4411 52 | 9 32 
a3ir. | 6! 51] 9 48| 13] 45) 0 31a {10 11 
24S 5| 52] 8 49! 12] 46/115 |10 55 


‘Su.|5 36 535 66 505 106 46) 1 58 a |11 38m 
26M. | 2} 54 5 51) 9 47246 1026 a 
27Tu./5 1] 55} 4 52) 8 481840 .| 120 
28,W./4 59] 56] 2 53) 6] 49) 4 438 | 2 23 
B9Th.| 58) 58} 1) 54) <5) Op6 Bf) -8:46 
30.F. 56 591 Ol 55lg pS) ane 24 |G 4 


1841. ] April has Thirty Days. 17 
Phases of the Moon. 
Full Moon, 5th day, 8h. 23.0 m. A. 
Last Quarter, 13th “ 4 56.7 A. 
New Moon, ist 3 WS Bai MM. 
First Quarter, 28th “ 3 49.3 M. 
r = 3 ee rises or sets. = 
Sime ee ye Je ee 
5 $3 eo te ae Sunpays, &c. 
a\s5 | 8A [4zaa | BS ‘ 
sets. Sets, sets 
h. m.| h.m. | h. m. | h. m. 
1) 8 52a) 3 24m) 3 20m) 3 1%m)K)18HQ. & stationary. 
2|}941 | 351 | 348 | 347 IkD48Q. 
31029 |415 | 414 | 413 
S./11 16 a) rises. | rises. | rises. |Palm Sunday. 
5 34k 6 28 al 6 27 a} 6 25 a)}} stationary. [Bos. and Bar. 
6} 02m.| 739 | 736 | 733 |d QPleiades. GD g.C.P. 
71050 | 849 | 845 | 8 40 |Venus most brill. as eve. star. 
8| 139 | 957 | 952 | 9 46 IC.C. Len. 
9) 230 |11 1 1055 |10 49 |Good Friday. 
10} 3 22 |11 57 |11 St {1144 igpy 
i Alda 25 ee. Ae. (Baater Sum: \Jj stat! “Goer 
12} 5 5 | 0 46m) 0 40m| 0 33m|p Apogee. C.P. Ply. 
13) 555 | 126 | 121 | 115 |&p4yy. S. J.C. Low. Wor. 
14,6 42 | 2 0/156 | 150 [and Gr. C. C. Sp. Br. 
| | Alay Oe 1 WE; 5 
16} 811 | 252 | 250 | 247 |t7th, 9 8©. 
1% 853 - 314 | 313 | 311 [gat greatest W.elong.27°21’ 
S.| 9 36m) 3 34m) 3 34m) 3 34m\Low Sunday. G ) HL. 
1910 20 | 355 | 356 | 358 JB. of Lex.,& beg.of Am.Rev. 
2011 7 | 418 | 421 | 423 1[1775.S8.J.C.N.&T.C.C.Ded- 
Z1\11 56 | sets. | sets. | sets. |Bat. St. Jacinto, Texas, 1836. 
22) O 51 aj 8 39a) 8 34a| 8 29a [Q stat. 
231 150 | 955 | 949 | 943 Ist. George. 
24252 11 4 11057 |10 51 i 
S.| 355al... {11 55 a/l1 50a2dS. after East. p Perigee. 
Po tet | OW Si as eee ds 
27,554 | 049 | 0 43m| 0 38m'8. J. ©. Ips. and Sp. 
28 Seo 11k > | 1-2T Wate Be 
29, mee.) 1 64..) 1 51 11 48 [1st President, 1789 
30 825 {219 | 217 | 216 *K ) 65Q. Washington inaug 


*OD 


rd 


1S May, Fifth Month, begins on Saturday.  [18Al. 


Beg’s| iinds.||Beg’s| Ends. fee inds.||Beg’s| Ends. Beg’s Ends. 
h. m.{h. m. h. m. h.m. h.m.|h.m. |/h.m.|h. m. |/h. m./h. m. 
Boston, 3 7m/8 47a}/256m)8 57a 245m)9 7m}}235m]9 17 al]225m)9 Wa 
New York {314 |8 49 |[3 4 |8 49 254 |8 58 |1245 19 8 (1236 |9 10 
Washing’n [322 |8 32 [313 |8 40 3 4 [8 48 jj255 |8 57 |l247 19 7 
we “ Sun's upper limb rises and sets. | High water. 
MeO | ya oa ae > = 
SIF | -A85 |ga¢ |f8se 3 e 
2/5 |$365 |FFeg g2g2| 2 | Hs 
|e (sede | Bia. | eae mebern| 
AQ B.S ioe eo ere wees Zz. 
“| Irises | sets. ees rises | sets 
| b.m.h.m.h.m.h.m.h.m,|h. m. h. m. h. m. 
1S. |4 557 7 OA oF 596 565 25 52|8 85al6 15a 
“98u.l4 537 14576 575 116 53/9 81al/71la 
3M. 52 §6©9) 56) 585 O| 5410 19 7 59 
4\Pus 60 3} 546 5914 58} 5510 58 8 38 
1 5W.| 49 4) 53:7. 0 71 56/11 37 917 
6iTh.| 48 5) 52) 1] 56) 5a... 19 54 
TF. AT 6 5l 2 58} 0 14 m/10 27 
8S. 46 i oo “i 6 59) O 47 11 6 
9 Su. (4457 84 497 4/4 Ol 1 26 mill 41 a 
10M. 44 a 45. Fo V2 Ve reas 
LTS). 1 0p 4g 6 9-2, 84-4 alae 
12,W.| 42 11; 46 7 So ir 0 57 
13,Th. Ae V2" 40)” ira 4| 4 6 1 46 
14F. 40} 13) 44 9 Bi ae 2 42 
15S. Sor 4a Aol AG 6} 6 6 3 46 
16 Su. 33/7 15\4-42;7 11/4 "| 7 15m| 4 55m 
17M. 37. 16) 42) 12 7| 8 18 5 58 
18 Tu. Hi. 40 .1e 819 9 6 49 
19, W. 36, 18} 40) 14 91 9 52 ‘aoe 
20'Th. 3d 19) “39; 15 10110 39 8 19 
aK. oft 20) 30) 2116 10}11 28 9:28 
22'S, Sal ed moO! kb 11}015a}9 55 
93 Su. |4 3217 22/4 377 17/4 42'°7 12} 1 3 a |l0 43m 
24\M. 32). 83 Sor HE, 42: wbSid oD 11 30 
Q5\Tu.| Sh 24 36) 19) 41) 14) 2 42 O 22a 
26|W. 3 2 35 20; 40) 153 39 1 10 
eh. | 29" 3 34, 21} 40) 16) 4 37 Aa We | 
98 FE’. 99| 27| 34) 22) 39! 16) 5 37 3.17 
995. | 28, 28) 33] 23| 39) 17/6 43 | 4 23 
30 Su. 4 277 28/4 32:7 23/4 8817 181 7 52 a] 5 32a 
IM, 26). 29" 31] | Ra eo Oo 6 33 


j “STs 


Twilight begins and ends. Mean time.. 
Ist day. 7th day. || 13th day. 19th aay. 25th day. 


—_—__ SE — |) | 


SS 


1841. | May has Thirty-one Days. 19 


Phases of the Moon. 


Full Moon, 5th day, 8h. 57.3m. M 
Last Quarter, th “ 11,,13.0, M. 
New Moon, auth | 4. GR S5.7" Al 


First Quarter, wei, Le eal M. 


Moon risés or sets. 


S| aes — 
Si 2e | ws las | 82 
. oe AB BO 2 Sunpays, &c. 
S| See tt pee | Pe ashise. g 
A) ss | 8a |azae] BS 
sets. sets. sets. 
Gta) Doma! De Miele hens 
1} 911 aj 2 42m) 2 42m) 2 42m 
S.|9 57a} 3 4m) 3 5m} 3 Tm)3d Sunday after Easter. 
3:10 43 | rises. | rises. | rises. |b) g. 
411 31 | 6 33a} 6 30 a] 6 25 aS. J.C. Bar. 
3} 8 TAL | 737 | 731 |La Place d. 1827. Bonaparte, 
6| 0 2Im| 846 | 841 | 8 34 (1821. 
4 ot 2.) 9.46 ce AO 9 3a 
8 2 5 11039 1033 {10 26 
S.! 2 5%mi11 22a/11 17 a/11 10 al4th Sun. after Easter. 
10| 347 (1158 |11 54 |11 48 |p Apogee. 
11) 435 (ee Pees en. iy. 
12) 5 21 0 2m 0 24m 0 19m|C. C. Con. 
13}6 4 | 052 | 050 | 046 Virginia settled, 1607, O. S. 
14,647 |115 | 114 111 |inf. g gO. 
151729 | 136 | 136 | 135 |g psa. Cuiver 4.1992, 


S.) 812m 4 56m! 1 57m} 1 58m/|Rogation Sunday. 


171856 |218 | 221 | 299 
18 9 44 242 1246 | 248 [C .C. Edg, 
1910 37 | 310 | 315 | 819 |o?%. 9244 South of 9. 


2011 34 aa sets, sets. Ascension Day. 
211 03%a 47 al 8 49g) 8 8 Bi q|20th. Columbus d. 1506, O.5. 
we WA ; 52 | 945 ) Pergee. 


7 R 


.| 2 46 aj10 44 a/10 38 a : _ a|Sun. after Ascen. & ) mT. 
24,347 {11 24 (1119 |11 15 |Q. of Eng. b. 1819. C. P. Edg. 
25, 443 {11 56 {1152 |11 50 [KD ness. Sup.d §©. [C.C, 
26)33.55. |. ag TE. tos [P. Wor. 
27| 6 24 | O 23m QO 2!m| 0 20m 
28, 710 | 047 | 047 | 046 
291755 11 9 |110 | LIL |¢ stationary. 

S.| 8 40 al 1 32m} 1 34m) Lt 37m] Whit. Sun. Pentecost. 
311927 1157 120/27 lope. 


20 June, Sizth Month, begins on Tuesday. [1841. 


Twilight begins and ends. Mean time. 
Ist day. 2nd day. Loin day. ivth day. 25th day. 
Bee s| Ends.|/Heg’s| Ends,||Beg’s| Ends,}|Beg’s| Ends. Begs Ends. 
2 m.{h, m. h.m.{bh.m |{h. m.}h. m.|/h. m.{h. m. h. m./h. m. 
Boston, aime 9 37 a]\212m]9 44 a}/2 9m]9 50all2 8m]9 54a]/2 9m}9 55a 
New York.|229 |9 25 |/295 |9 31 |/293 |9 37 |/223 |9 40 |/223 |9 41 
Washin’n. |241 9 13 |/237 {9 19 \[236 [9 24 }|235 |9 27 11236 [9 28 
$ a4 Sun's upper limb rises and sets. High water. 
Ol as ee Ce a = 
° o «o td ete — = = ro) 
SIF | 685 |3@8, Wee § “ 
2.) > le aheae maeS |18.8305 8 3 
Be | Sees | FEES 1 geen 3 2 
-3 =) , fos - tpg SOF mM faa) 


sets. \raseés | sets. 


° 
al 
= 
o 
CD sa et Z 
rises | sets-\rises 
h.m.jh.m./h.m.} h. m. h, m. 
7 
8 
8 


h.m.jh. m.-jh. m. 


Tu.|4 26)7 304 31 


1 7 25!4 377 191 949 a 

giw.| 25) 31; 30); 26) 37 19/10 38 

3/Th.| 25} 32) 30) 27) 36) 20/11 18 
AIF’. 24, 32) 29) 27 36; 20/11 58 9 38 
5|S. 24) 83) 29) 28). 86)+ 21) 3s. 10 13 
6 


Su. |4 23)7 33/4 29,7 284 357 211033 m |10 48 a 
"iM. | 23] 34| 28) 29) 35) 22/1 8 Lt 25 
8iTu.| 22) 35) 28) 30) 35) 23) 1 43 11 57 
gWw.| 22) 35) 28) 30) 34) 23) 217 hae 
10/Th.| 22) 36) 28) 31} 34) 24 2 57 0 37m 
11)/F. 22} 36| 28) 31} 34) 24) 340 1 20 
12)S. 22) 37 28) 32) 34) 25) 4 27 | 
13| Su. |4 22/7 37\4 28,7 32/4 347 25) 511m | 2 51m 
14M. | 22) 38 28) 33) 34 26/6 5 3 45 
15|Tu.| 22) 38) 28) 33 34) 26) 711 4 51 
16;W.| 22) 38) 28) 43) 34) 26) 816 5 56 
17\Th.| 22) 39} 28 34) 34 27 921 Rie: 
18|F 22; 39) 28) 34 34 27/10 21 alae 
19)S. 22; 39) 28 34) 34) 2710 14 8 54 
20|Su.|4 22'7 39/4 254 34/4 347 27/0 Ta | 9 47m 
PIM. | 23) 39) 29) 34| 35) 28 056 10 36 
22'Tu.| 23) 389) 29) 34! 35im® 28) 1 46 11 26 


23\W.| 23] 40| 29| 35) 35) 28) 233 O13 a 


24'Th.| 23) 40, 29] 35] 35] 28 3 24 14 
O5\F 23) 40| 29) 35) 35] 29) 412 1 52 
26|S 231 40| 29) 35) 35) 29) 456 2 36 
97\Su.|4 24'7 404 304 36\4 357 2915 49a |3 29a 
9siM. | 924) 40 30) 36| 35 29] 6 54 4 34 
29\Tu.| 24; 40) 30 36| 35) 29) 814 5 54 
30\W. 35 40| 31) 371 351 29) 9 25 4 5 


1841. ] 


June has Thirty Days. 21 


Phases of the Moon. 


Full Moon, _ 3d day, 10h. 33.9m. A 
Last Quarter, 12th “ 2 500 M. 
New Moon, Tote, tes 2 ya 8. Ging. i Deke 
First Quarter, 25th “ 5 28.7 A. 
7) 3 if Moon rises or sets. 
lems | He lame. 
= ae AS [5° aa Sunpays, &c, 
else | Be |t Spa 
alse | aa |eaa| eS 
rises. | rises. | rises. 
The ihe: } EPS Be J Ela T ies by Ue 
110 16 a) 5 3l aj 5 27a) 5 Qa 
Z1l 6 | 6 36 |.631 | 625 jm. 
3)11 58 | 737 | 731 | 724 | stationary. go Dam. 
4i 5's 831 | 825 | 818 |d DU. xKDpe. 
5} 050 | 918 |} 913 19 6 Id Dh. PuO. dds. 
S.| 141m] 9 56a) 9 51 al 9 46 alTrinity Sunday. oe 
7 230 |10 28 |10 24 |10 19 |p Ap.C.P. Nant. con. N.Bed. 
8} 316 |1055 |10 52 |10 48 |C. C. North. and Green fi eld 
94 O |1118 |11 16 |11 14 floth. oO. 6 gen. 
10; 443 |11 39 |11 38 |11 37 ‘Corpus Christi. Féte Dieu. 
11; 524 {11 58 |11 59 {11 59 
PS a Se ae 6). 
S.| 5 48m| 0 18m] 0 2im| 0 22m|lst Sunday after Trinity. 
14,733 | 041 | 045 | 047 |c-.P. Ips. Sp. and Wor. 
15).8:22: |:1 99.4 144 FRE? icc: Wer. 
16,.95:07 | 142 |. YAS SSL be 
17110 17 | 219 | 226 | 232 [Battle of Bunker Hill, 1775. 
18}11 21 sets. sets. Sets, |War with England, 1812. 
19) 0 27 a| 8 32a) 8 26 a) 8 20 alQ most bril. as morn. star. 


— | ——————_————_ 


28 
29 


132a\ 919a) 914a\ 9 9 al2dSun.af.Trin. >) %.) Per. 


232 |955 |951 | 948 Sum.beg. 2 h©.C.C.P.Con. 
3 28 |10 25 11022 11021 |xp18Q [C.P.Len.C. C. 
419 {1050 |10 49 |10 49 [Sp. and Ded. 

5 7 |11 13 |11 13 |11 14 jst. John Baptist. 

5 53 {11 36 {11 38 111 40 

O 5D} 0). oe ee. Oe 

7 25a} O Om| 0 3m\ 0 Tmiza Sun. after Trin. SDS. 
S138 | 025 | 029 7085 

9 3 | 054 | 059 | 1 5 |St. Peterand St.Paul. # stat 
954)| 131°, 137 |} 143 |e. 


30 


22 July, Seventh Month, begins on Thursday. [1841. 


Twilight begins and ends. Mean time. 


Ist day. || 7th day, 13th day. 19th day. 25th day. 
Beg’s| Ends. Begs Ends.|/ Beg’s| Ends, ||Beg’s| tnds.|/Beg’s| Ends, 
-m.{h.m. |/h. m.}h.m. ||h m.}h. m. |/h. m.|h. m. |/h. m.|h. m. 
Boston, 212m/9 54a/|219m|9 49 a/i225m]9 44 |/235m/9 37al/244m]|9 28a 
New York./225 |9 40 |l232 |9 36 |l239 |9 31 i246 |9 25 |lo54 |9 18 
Washing’n.|239 |9 97 |l244 |9 24 |l251-19 19 |la58 lo 14 IIs 5 lo 7 
3 |g [_San's upper limb rises and sets. High water. 
mt aD) ‘ ' ea wn beste) - ie x 
° ox ~ or) ra) ae 
Bye | cass eee £asg 2 = 
Se | S252 setae fas s a Pod 
is) ar eo 2 Su 5 o 
1) n OR SS > eee Bere 5 ac) a) 
s| es | 5's & | ons SaPs S 2 
== mq 5 ZO OF th 6 A, 
rises | sets.|rises | sets, |rises | sets. 
h.m./h.m |h. m.}h.m.|h.m.jh.m.| h, m, h. m. 
1/Th. (4 25'7 40/4 3117 35/4 37/7 2910 17 a | 7 57 a 
oe 26) 40)" 39) Sola? t) ied ke 8 43 
G25 


—__. | ———— | | ————___ | 


3/5. 27, 40} 32) 35) 38) 2911 45 


5M. | 281 39! 33! 34! 39! 28 0 20m/10 32 
6iTu.| 29 39} 34) 34) 40) 28/052 ill 5 
“iw.| 29 39! 55} 34! 40) 281125 11 39 
8iTh.| 30 38] 35! 33] 41} 271 1 59 et 

OF 31} 38 36] 33] 42) 27| 2 33 0 13 
10/S 82] 38} 37| 33] 421 2713 8 0 48 
11/Su. |4 33/7 37/4 88/7 32/4 43/7 26] 3 46m! 1 26m 
12M. | 33! 37] 39] 32] 44} 26] 4 24 2 4 
13/Tu.| 34) 36 39] 31) 45) 2515 7 2 47 
14;w.| 35! 36] 40) 31] 45! 25) 6 17 3 57 


Sa 
ee ee ee ee ee eee eee 


18i\Su. |4 387 33/4 44|7 28/4 4917 2311 8m] 8 
19M. | 39) 32) 44) 27) 50) 22/0 Oa/9 40 


—— | ——-§ | ———————— — | S| | 


25|Su.|4 457 27\4 49'7 22/4 54/7 17, 4 14 a| 1 54a 


26|M. | 46; 26) 50) 22) 55) 175 2 2 42 
Zulu.) 47) 25) 5) 21) 56) 16) Gad 3 49 
28|W.| 48 24) 52) 20) 56] 15) 7 35 515 
29\Th.| 49} 23) 53) 19} 57 14) 8 57 6 37 
3O}F. | 50; 22) 54; 18) 58 14) 9 59 7 39 
31)S. ol’ 21) 55) 17 59) 13)10 44 8 24 


Phases of the Moon. 


Full Moon, od day, Lh. 20.3m. A. 
Last Quarter, Bs A hel paar 0B na 
New Moon, Toth SF Sau a.G, | Ms 
First Quarter, goth »*. Sie 12.88 » Mi 


s/| 33; Daeee Fes Suse | 
E 38 wi voll ey 
Sli@e | ge PeSSt Se Sunpays, &c. 
Reg | ES oe hee bs 
: oo SO 2 oe 4 
aig 2 . C 
rises. | rises. | rises 
Bt sh Bone Horie oe ct 
110 45 a} 6 27a} 6 21 a} 6G 14 a/Earth furthest from ©. 
OPS WIG: | 10. te Tia, (tor. 
Sage 757 | 752 | 746 [4th Indep. dec. 1776. 
S.| 0 26m) 8 31 a} 8 27a) 8 21 al4th Sun. after Trinity. 
Sh lori} 5 49.4 S56 |) 8 St 
6} 158 | 923 | 921 | 918 |g. 3. c. Nan., C. P. Bos. 
7 2.41 | 9-45 | 944°) 9 42 
81322 f0 5 110 5 110 4 
9 4 3 |10 24 |10 26 |10 26 {¢ stationary. g pH. 
10) 444 1044 |10 47 |10 49 
S.| 5 27mjll Tall 11 alll 14 aldth Sunday after Trinity, 
12} 613 |11 34 |11 39 |L1 44 
LS ie ad «ees beak Tdi ol Matationary. LC. Cl. Sak 
14,759 | O 9m) 015m! 0 21m 
Hie eh. O oo ok oo Lie Os © ace 


1Gtaae eS F152 ye 0 it 2 ae 
{711 10 sets, sets. sets, |18th. © eclipsed inv. in U.S 


S.| 0 14a) 750 al 7 45a) 7 42 alcth Sun. after Trin. D Per. 
19} 113 | 824 | 821 | 818 

20, 2 8 | 852 | 850 | 849 f 

21), 259 | 916 | 916 | 916 

221347 | 939 | 940 | 942 

23} 434 |10 3 110 5 |10 8 

24 521 10 28 1032 |10 36 


Bi wa O8 i) 2 ee rl oe “obese [Inte d $6). a: 
281841 | 011 | 018ml 0 25m 
991933 |05%m| 1 5 | 112 
301023 | 150 | 1 
3111111 1251 |25 


. August, Eighth Month, begins on Sunday. 


Twilight begins and ends. 


Mean time. 


[1841. 


Ist day. 7th day. || 13th day. 19th day. 25th day. 
Beg’s| nds ||Beg’s| Ends.||Beg’s| Ends, Beg’s| Ends. Beg’s are 
.m {h.m. h. m.|b.m. ||h. m.{h. m. h. m.|h, m. |i/h. m.|h. 
Boston, 255m 9 17a1/3 5m/9 5aj/815m{8 58a\|\824m/8 42a 334m 8 30. 
New York, 34 19 8 |/314 18 56 |1323 18 45 ||322 |8 34 {|340 [8 24 
Washing’n.|314 [3 56_||s22 [8 48/330 1s 38 lis33 js 28 |la43 [818 __ 
c= ad _ Sun's: upper limb rises and sets. High water. 
ele | .42, [288 Ueeeg | sg. | = 
a\s [seed |RZes |2Fa2 | 2 | Bg 
ele |8éoc | bees | gees 3 — 
Ala et ee FOSa 3 Z, 
fail rises | sets.|ruses | sets. |rises| sets. 
h.m.th. m.{b.m.{h.m. fe hsm, h. m. 
Su. |4 52/7 204 56)7 1615 07 1211 28a|/9 Ba 
1 : 
aiTy.| 54] 18} 58) 14 1} 10:0 3m/10 14 
Alw.| 55} 16/4 59) 12) 2 90 34 {10 45 
5ITh.| 56] 15/6 O} 11 bee biel ae be ha: 11 12 
6IF. 57, 14 Liweid A Ne Dae 11 44 
"IS. 58} 13 halide 9 5) SOT Dea aes 
“elSu. |4 59/7 7115 37 75 67 42 36 0 16m 
OM. 5 O| 10 “Pe Ts 7 2| 3 10 0 50 
10/Tu. 1 Qi ol b ak Aol aero 20 1 30 
11/W. D) Bi Gl at Ae OFF Oh ad 2 21 
12)Th. Se Sa ra oS SEO AG BDO! ho aa 3 29 
13\F A BS) oS PCT) SG To 5 5 
14\S. FD iio aad Cage ea deo pes sy 6 33 
15\Su.l5 617 25 106 5815 146 5510 O m| 7 40m 
16|M. “7 O| 11] 56) 14 53/10 58 8 38 
17/Tu. 8i6 59| 12) 45) 15) 5211 47 9 27 
18iw. 9} 57 13} 53) 16) 50) 0 32 a j10 12 
19Th.| 10) 55) 144 52) 17 49) 1 11 10 51 
20\F. 11) 54) 15) 50) 18 48) 1 47 11 27 
21|S 12| 52) 16) 49) 19 46) 2 24 QO 4a 
99\Su. (5 14/6 5115 176 48/5 206 45,3 Oa] 0 40a 
23)M. 15| 50) 18 46} 21) 44) 3 42 1 22 
24\Tu.| 16| 48) 19| 55) 21) 42) 4 28 Cae 
25Iw.| 171 47) 20) 44) 32) 41) 5 35 3 15 
%6'Th.| 18| 45} 21) 42) 23) 40,7 3 4 43 
QUE. 19} 44) 22| 41} 24) 38) 8 31 6 11 
28)\S. 90| 42) 23} 39) 25) 37 9 37 1 ied bd 
90\Su.|5 2116 405 246 38\5 266 3610 24a|8 4a 
30\M. 99| 39| 25) 37} 27 8411 6 8 46 
31\Tu.! 23! 371 26! 35) 28) 33jl1 38 9 18 


EP FLL BE ee a 
1841. | August has Thirty-one Days. 25 
Phases of the Moon. 


Full Moon, 2d day, 4h. 53.8m. M. 
Last Quarter, 10th “ 1 106 M. 
New Moon, 16th “..4 248 A. 
First Quarter, 23d “ 8 14 M. 
Full Moon, Bist] "| & ¥2.7 7) A: 
a 2 : Moo} rises or hoa 
S| e¢ wee || ne = hae 
=] Aw ars "Oo ES Sunpays, &c. 
6 S S m+ ae ~ 3 q 
a\ss | 8A laze] BS 
rises, | rises. | rises 
h.m. | h. m.| h.m. } h. m. [Lammas day. 
8.11 57a) 7 3aj 7 Oa) 6 55 asth Sun. af. Trin p 19yy 
21 8 728 | 726 | 722 |@ tot. eclip. visible in U.S. 
3} 040m) 750 | 749 | 747 Ic.P. Ply. 
44122 |810 |} 810 | 8 9 
5| 2 2 | 829 | 830 | 830 
6} 243 | 849 | 851 | 852 |d )H.¥ and } stationary. 
W326 | DLIS) S146), 9 17 
S.| 4 9m} 9 36a} 9 41 aj 9 45 al9th Sun. after Trinity. 
9457 10 7 11013 |1018 |g py. C.P. Gr. and Ply. 
10| 549 |1046 {1053 |10 59 
11} 646 |11 36 |11 44 j11 51 
ore at a) ot. Oe Ose 
13} 850 | 039m) 047m) 0 54mjd DQ. . 
14,954 }154 12 142 7 (|L5th. Sat gr. W. elon. 18°35’ 


— | | EES 


S.|10 54m) 35 15m} 3 21m) 3 26 [10th Sun. after Trin. ¢ p &. 
16)11 51 | sets. | sets. | sets. |© eclipsed, invis. in U. 8. 
17, 0 45a) 716a} 715 a) T15a 

18, 135 | 740 | 740 | 742 

19,.2 25 18 -5'| 8 6°1810 

20; 313 | 830 | 833 | 8 37 alxy Pip 

21,402 | SER) 9 2°)}9 0% 

S.| 4 52a) 9 29a) 935 a) 9 41 altith Sun. after Trin. 3 DP 
23) 544 |10 8 1014 {10 22 

24, 6 36 ;1053 j11 O {11 8 igyy 

25) 728 |1145 71153)... SDh 

26; 8 18 O Om 


2719 7 | 043m| 050ml 057 


—_—_| I EF 


S.|10 38 a} 247m) 251m} 2 57m\jo Sunaher Taw 
30111 20 |.350 | 353 |358 lopwi 
31 8 453 4 59 4 58 h stationary. 


Ts Wa et ae a 
26 September, Ninth Month, begins on Wednesday. [1841. 


Twilight begins and ends. Mean time. 
Ist day. wth day. |) 13th day. jj) lyth day. jj 20th day, 
Beg? | Ends.) Beg’s| Huds.||Beg’s.| Ends,|| Begs. bnds,||Beg’s\ Ends, 
h.m /b.m. |/h. m.|/h. m.|}h. m. |h. m. h. m. |h.m.|/h.m.|h. m. 
Boston, 344m/3 16a/(35im|/8 4al/3 59m|7 524 ‘4 7m\7 40a 4 16m|7 28 
New York./349 /8 11 |/356 |8 0 |/4 3 |7 49 |410 (737 |'418 |7 96 
Washing’n.|354 {8 6 |/4 0 |7 56 ||4 7 |7 45 }14 14 |7 34 |'421 |7 93 
= ~ Sun’s upper limb rises and sets. High water. 
se |es. (25S Cee ges pee r 
S| B| Sos | ese egea $ aa 
AlA\ "SS" |2eo “Fora. & © 
‘i rises | sets. \rtses | sets. |rises | sets. 
h.m {h. m.|h. m.|h. m./b.m.'h.m.! h. m h. m. 
1}W.15 2416 35'5 2716 33/5 296 31]. . 949 a 
2\Ch.} 26) 33) 28 31) 30) 29'0 9m/|10 18 
JF. 7| 32) 29| 30) 31| 28 0 38 10 44 
A'S. 38; 30) 30) 28 32} 26,1 4 11 13 
5) Su.|5 2916 23815 3116 265 336 24°71 33m 11 44 a 
GM. | 30| 26) 32] 24) 34 a3'2 4 |... 
“/Tu.| 31] 25 33) 23 35) 2119 41 |0 21m 
sw.| 32] 23 34 21! 35! 201399 |1 9 
9'Th.| 33] 21] 35! 19] 36] 181422 |2 2 
10\F. 35, 79} 36) 17 37 16) 5 40 3 220 
11|S. % 17| ST 15) 2338).41 bao 4 59 
12)Su.|5 37/6 155 386 145 396 13) 8 43 m/| 6 23 m 
13\M. 38} 14) 39) 13) 40; 12) 9 49 i RO 
14/Tu.| 39) 12) 40; 11; 41} 1010 44 8 24 
15, W.| 40) 10) 40 9} 41 911 30 9 10 
16,Th.} 41 8 41 Wd. 42)... 7:0 ..9 a 7] Boag 
17\F. 42} 6) 42 5} 43 5| 0 46 10 26 
18'S. 43 5| 43) “et «44 B18 10 58 
19|Su.|5 446 35 446 25 446 21 52a |11 32m 
20\M. 45 1) 456 O} 456 O| 2 31 Olla 
21\Tu.| 4616 O| 46/5 59| 465 59] 3 12 0 52 
2aW.| 4715 58) 47 58) 47) 57 3 58 1 38 
23/Th.| 48} 56} 48) 56) 48 56) 4 58 2 38 
241k 50} 55). 50) 55) 49) 54/6 24a/4 4 
25|S 51} 53} 51} 53} 50) 53).7 46 5 26 
26|Su.|5 52\5 51/5 526 51/5 51/5 51) 9 1a/!6 41 a 
27M. 53] 491 53) 49)' 52):(49) 9954 7 34 
28\Tu.| 54, 47 54) 47) 53) 48/10 34 S, 14 
29'W.| 55) 46) 55) 46) 54, 46/11 7 8 47 
30/Th.| 56} 44} 56} 44) 55) 45/11 38 9 18 


1841. ] September has Thirty Days. 27 
Phases of the Moon. 
Last Quarter, 8thday, 9h. 4.6m 
New Moon, th “ QO 54.2 


.M 
M. 
First Quarter, 22d “ 0 23.6 M. 
Full Moon, 30th’ ** 11, 10.5°° M 


Moon rises or sets, 


2] 43 2 
g E Z E E Zs é r Sunpays, &c 
(sa | a |ea.| 42 re) 
aise | aa lees lee | 
i rises. | rises. | rises 
he otap bm.) 2. tea Om 
1} 0 2m) 6 36 a} 6 37a] 6 37a 
91043 |655 | 657 | 6 58 |d DH. 
Shale tel ee EEG) 
42 8 7 42 TAT 7150 |8 ©? Intensity oflight,0.468 
S.| 255m) 811 | 8 17a) 8 22 |13th Sunday after Trinity. 
6| 345 | 8 46a) 853 | 8 59 [KD «op 
"| 439 | 930 | 938 | 944 Js Hd stationary.S.J. C. Len. 
8| 5 37 {lJ 27 {10 35 |10 42 [Gr. C. C. Wor. Gr. 
G| 6 38 |11 35 |11 42 |L1 49 Sup. d 8O. 
10) 740 |... |. «a. | ~~~ [Battle on Lake Erie, 1813. 
11) §40 | 051m) 057m) 1 Smiyy o Bat. L. Champ. 1814. 


S.| 9 36m} 2 10m) 2 15m) 2 19m)14th Sunday after ‘Trinity. 
113/10 30 | 330 | 3 34 | 3 36 [Battle of Quebec, 1759. p Per. 
14/11 22 sets. sets. sets. |C.C.Con. [C.P.Low.Tau. 
15} 012a|6 4a 6 5a 6 Va 

16} 1 1 | 6 29 | 6 31 | 635 |Jewish Year 5662, begins. 
Piel.) 6-66.-6 7-0 LA 

T8232 42 | C27 al. 7 SS ay T38 


S.| 334al 8 4a] 811 aj) 816 [15th Sun. after Trinity. 

90| 4 27 | 847 | 854 | 9 1 [19th. ORO [C.C.Ded.Taun- 
21} 520 | 9387 | 944 | 952 Iopt. W. Scott d. 1832. 
22} 6 12 11034 |1040 1048 [gp 

93nd oo) LEGA LAO I 4 © | Antuma begins. 

24| 7 49 reer rela - + + |) Apogee. 

25| 834 | 0 36m! 0 4im| 0 47m 


S.) 917 a} 139m) 1 43m) 1 47m 16th Sunday after Trinity. 
271.9 59 | 2.42, 12 Ae 248 ic P. Edg. C. C. P. Wor. 
98110 40 | rises. | rises. | rises. S. J.C. Wor. 

2911 22 |5 lal 5 Sal 5 Bag ) HA St. Michael. 

30, & | 523 | 526 | 528 | 


28 October, Tenth Month, begins on Friday.  [1841. 


Twilight begins and ends. Mean time. 
Ist day. 7th day. 13th day. 19th day. Q5th day. 


—————_— —-—_— | | | | | | 


Beg’s| Euds.|| Beg’s; Ends. || Beg’s srebige Beg’s| Ends.||Beg’s| Ends. 
h.m.|h. m. |}h.m.}h.m. |/h. m, [h. h.m }h.m. {/h.m. |h.m. 
Boston, 4 23m|7 1 aj}430m|7 6 a/}/437m 655. a 444m |6 46 450m|638 a 


N. York. {425 |715 [|432 |7 4 ||438 [654 ||444 [646 ||450 |6,38 
Washing’n.|427 |713 |]433 |7 3 ||488 [654 |[444 1646 ||450 |638 
i | Sun’s wyper limb rises and sets. High water. 
a v a Nan aI” TT Ne ee a ee ee 
a | o D = 2 Sunk eS ‘ 3 
fo) ad os “oon, . 
se 23 |6He |ses3 | 3g ¢ 
Ge | Se OS | Bad q 8'3.2 = bm S 
a 1S x 283 [pass ¢ 3 
n | wm Aur: BBS Cae = i gS pies) 
P| B = &0 oes aA Se % ® 
A|S daa i Benen dl 1-8 f 
rises \ sets. rises sets. \rises | sets. 
h: m.{h. m.|h.m.|h. m.|h.m.}h.m.|| h., m h. m 
F. 15 5715 42\5 5715 42)5 56/5 43 9 44a 
S. 15 58! 40) 58) 40) 57) 41/0 4m/]10 15 


Su. |5 5915 3915 595 3915 5815 40| 0 35m/10 47 a 
M. 6 1 376 O| 375 59 38/1 7 (111 26 


leo mazorenm col tom 
z 


: 36} 1| 366 O| 371 1 46 abe 
W. 34, 2} 34) 1] 351228 10 Sm 
Th. 32} 3 33i 2] 341317 1057 
BE, 31; 4| 3i| . 3| 321414 |1 54 
S. 291 5! 30; 4| 311535 | 315 

10. Su.16 85 276 65 286 55 29/7 Om| 4 49m 

11|M 9) 264 | 37; 6 28/827 |6 7% 

12/Tu.| 10} 244 8] 25, 7 261933 1718 

13,W. 99} 9 23, 8 251021 |8 1 

14/Th.| 12] 21} 10| 29} 9) 23/11 4 | 8 44 

15|F 19] 11} 20] 10} 22/11 42 | 9 92 

16S 17] 12} 181 11] 20] 0 18a] 9 58 

17|Su.|6 155 1516 135 1716 1215 19 0 53 a (10 33m 

1¢M. 14] 15] 15) 13] 18] 131 (11 11 

19 Tu. 12| 16] v4! 14] 16] 2 7 ‘11 47 

20 W. 11] 17 13] 15) 15] 246 10 26a 

91 Th. 91 18| 11] 16] 14] 332 |1 12 

99 F, 8} 19) 10) 17 13] 4 21 2 <1 

938 6} 20) 9 18] 111535 |3 15 

04 Su. 6 235 56 215 76 195 10' 6 53 al 4 33a 

95M. | Sis OR Ae Gl ZO} ~ Oi pS ened 5 41 

96 Tu, 9) 24, 4) 211 819 5 16 45 

27 W. 5 O| 25, 3] 22) 61946 | 7 26 

98 Th. 459) 26 2) 23) 4511025 |8 5 

99 F.| 7 57| 2715 o| 24 3/1059 | 8 39 

30S. | 30} 55| 28/4 59] 25) 2111 35 | 9 15 

31Su. 6 394 546 2914 5819 265 1 9 bla 


458 |*KD€op.St.Sim. and St.Jude. 


1841.] October has Thirty-one Days. ae 
Phases of the Moon. 
Last Quarter, 7th day, 4h. 3.3m. A. 
New Moon, lth, 11 nis. M: 
First Quarter, Odes °S FSe 6a.AN" MM: 
Full Moon, 30th, © "Ure 40500" ME: 
a a. Moen rises or sets 
cps Lee a ac 
: ae ais Bog 2a Sunpays, &c. 
‘ $$ 29 2 ag 
8 SI Se 
rises. | rises. | rises. 
be me | be or) tema) he me 
11 0 6m} 5 46a) 5 51a) 5 54 aK 11H. 
2; 052 | 6 14 | 6 20 | 6 24 
S.| | 42m} 6 48a) 6 54a) 7 Oz/l7th Sun. af. Trin. &Gb, g, 
4,235 | 731 | 733 | 745 |kp28.C. P. Nan. , 
5} 332 | 823 | 831 8 38 |C.P. Bos. C. C. Spr. 
6} 432 | 926 | 933 | 9 40 
7 532 |10 37 |10 44 10 49 
86 31 {11 53 |11 58 
OF hore +). . kB ae 0 3m 
S.| 8 21m) 1 11 .} 1 14m) 1 18miisth sun. after Trinity. 
11] 911 | 227 | 230 | 232 |g99.C.. Spr. -.J.C.Cam 
IZ10 1 | 3438 | 344 | 345 
1310 50 | 458 | 458 | 457 |9OQ. Intens. of light,0.773. 
14:11 39 | sets. sets. sets. 
15) 0 29:| 5 Wal 5 25 al 5 30 
16} 1 22 | 558 6 3 1.610 “117th. db fh. Bur. sur. 1777. 
S.) 215 a} 6 40a| 5 46 al 6 54 all9th Sun. after Trin. 3d Dam 
18|' 3 9 728 |735 | 742 Id) U.19th Cornwallis sur. 
19/4 2 | 822 | 829 | 836 |S.J.C. Ply. [1781. 
20; 453 | 921 | 927 | 9 34 |America discov’d, 1492, N.S. 
21) 542 |1023 10 28 110 34 
22; 6 23 |11 26 |11.0 |11 35 |? Apogee. 
vas mer ey 24th. Q stationary. ~~ 
S. 7 54a 0 30m 0 33m} O 37m|20th S. after Trin. C. P. Len. 
25,835 | 132 | 134 | 1 37 | oat gr. E. elong.23 deg.50 m. 
26] 916 | 2 34 | 235 | 237 Is. J.C. Dea. 
271959 | 336 |335 1336 |g8o. 
28/10 45 | rises. | rises. | rises. 
29/11 34 | 415 | 4 2:} 4940 
30) 8 | 447 | 453 


a) 5 40 al2ist Sun. after Trin. 


30 November, Eleventh Month, begins on Monday. [ 1841. 


Twilight begins and ends. Mean time. 


Ist day. 2nd day. l3ih day. iYth day. 25th day. 
Beg sj Ends.|/Beg?s| Ends, Beg’s| Bnds Beg’s| Ends. Beg’s Ends. 
h. m.jh. m. |/h. m. {&. m. |/b. m.{h. m.{/h. m./h. m. |/h. m./h. m. 
Boston, 458m|6 30a//5 5m/6 23a//511m/6 18a//517m/6 14al/523m/6 lla 
New York.}457 |6 31 |/5 4 /6 24 |/510 |6 19 [1515 |6 16 ||521 |6 13 
Washin’n, 457 |6 31 {15 3 {625 ||5 8 [6 21 |/513 {618 11519 [6 15 
S |g | Sun's upper limb rises and sets. |__High water. 
5 |e 683 |fee ae 2 2 
e\s gees jezg. |2222 | 2 | Bs 
AIA | As Sie EOF mM ~ Z, 
rises | sets.\rises |sets. \rises | sets: 
h.m.{h. m.|h. m.|h.m.|h.m.|h.m.| h. m. hb. on. 
1\M. |6 33/44 536 30/4 576 275 0) 012m |10 33 a 
2\Tu.| 34 52) SI) 56) 284 59/0 58 11°16 
3\'W.| 35) 51) 32) 55) 29) 58) 1 36 phe 
A\Th.| 36] 50) 33) 54) 380 57220 |0 Om 
SF. 38). 49). 34; 53) 31) 56) 3 12 0 52 
6\S. 39. 47), 36) .Dikh 82) Hope 1 dl 
7|Su.|6 40/4 4616 37/4 506 3314 54, 5 25m/13 5m 
8iM. 42) 45) 38 491.235). Bei G43 433 
9iTu.| 43) 44 39) 48 36) 52)7 56 5 36 
10\W.| 44 43) 40) 47 37) 51) 859 6 39 
11/Th.| 46} 42) 42) 46) 39) 50/9 52 7 32 
12). 47| 41; 438) 45) 40) 49/10 36 8 16 
13)S. 48} 40) 44, 44) 41] 4811 19 8 59 
14|Su.|6 50/4 3916 46/4 436 424 4711 58m | 9 38m | 
15|M. 51} 388 47 42) 43) 46|034a (10 14 
16/Tu.| 52) 3 48; 41} 44 45) 111 10 51 
17W.| 53} 36| 49} 41| 45) 44) 147 lige 
18\Th.| 54) 35) 50} 40) 46) 44) 2 24 O 4a 
19IF. 55} 34h opt. S39" 47 4BRS Ff QO 47 
20'S 57| 34) 53). 39) 48) 42) 358 1 38 
21\Su.\6 58\4 3316 54/4 386 494 42| 449a | 2 29m 
22|M..|6 59 32) ba Sis SO) 41+ 5 47 be pd 
23\Tu.|7 O}| 31) 56) 36) 51} 41) 6 46 4 26 
24\W Di Sl DT soo 2). Aly '7G1 5 3l 
25\Th. 3) 30; 58) 35}) 53) 40| 8 47 6 27 
26\F. 4} 306 59} 35) 54) 40) 9 36 7 16 
QS. 5 29/7 0} 34) 55 ca 25 8&5 


29|M. 8 29 11 57 ered | 


8\Su.\7 614 297 1\4 346 567 4011 9a |8 49 a 
| mor | ga 


3 34) 58| 40 
4) 33) 59| 39 


1841. | November has Thirty Days. 


Phases of the Moon. 


Last Quarter, 5th day, 11h. 5.6m. A. 
New Moon, Ith? “0 2E5 A. 
First Quarter, 2Ist “ 1 216 M. 
Fall Moon,} Otay he) Pe 20 8 1 tks 
a +3 3 Moon rises or sets. 
E Ba fits aa =| 
=| ae ra me ee Sunpays, &c. 
a | Jeg ; ee = 
S82) ss Fae oe 
A) ss | aa as | Be 
rises. | rises. | rises. 
hjm.ik B2 nt) |. | hem: 
1| 1 25m| 6 19 aj 6 27m] 6 33 ajAll Saints. C.C. P. Low. 
21226 | 720 | 728 | 734 |AllSouls. S. J.C. Sal. 
3,327 | 830 | 837 | 843 Bat. near Canton,China,1839. 
5} 524 |11 1 fll 6 11 9 $% stationary. 
Gi Ge'é. | a4. Tears 
S.| 7 Tm) 0 16m) 0 20m) 0 2imigeqd s. af. Trin. &) 652. 
8} 756 | 130 | 132 | 133 \c P. Greenfield. 
9) 8 43 2 42 2 42 2 42 Ss. J. C. Bos. and N. Bed. 
10} 9381 | 353 | 352 | 350 |o6 rag. 
Tht0 207 bo sD OT aor 5) 2 
12\11 11 sets. | sets. | sets. 
13|}0 4a 434 | 440a| 447 igps. 
S.| 0 58 5 19a} 5 26a) 5 33 ajgza Sun. after Trin. 3 Dam. 
15,151 |611 | 618 | 6 25 
16 244a\ 7 9 | 715 | 722 lod. Inf ¥O. 
rncas4 | Bll | 8 16 S22 ia yee 
tone ic O-138” i SG aie 
19\5 6 |1016 |1019 |10 23 |D Apogee. 
20; 5 48 |11 18 j11 20 {11 23 ¥ 
S31 j6:29 al ees 24th Sunday after Trinity. 


22} 710 | 0 20m) 0 21m) 0 23m 
23RD | 8238-st Beet 1:23 aD E- 
QA' 8 35 225 2 24 9 94 25th. N. York evac 1783. 
25 9 22 | 332, 329 | 3 28 | stationary. 
29610 14 | rises. | rises. | rises. 


971110 | 319al 3 36al 3 31a 


——S— || Fe _ 


SS & |4 Gal 418a\ 420 a Advent Sunday. 
29 Ollm| 5 5 | 513 | 519 
30.114 | 615 | 6 22 | 6 28 |St. Andrew. KD AD. 


32 December, Twelfth Month, begins on Wednesday.{ 1841. 


Twilight begins and ends. Mean time. 


Beg’s) funds, ||Beg’s| Mnds.|| Beg’s| Ends. ||Beg’s | Ends. ||Beg’s| Kuds, 
Boston, [529m Jalleanmle gale4omle” Balsazulé 10al[s4om|6 14 a 
New York.]527 |6 1] |[533 (6 11 |[537 |6 11 [1541 |6 13 |]544 |6 16 
Washing’n.|525 |6 13 |/530 |6 14 {1534 |6 14 1/5 38 |6 16 |[541 {6 19 
s = Sun’s upper limb rises and sets. High water. 
5 = ‘i = 2 2 pa ert: ap 3 ad 
Aad see ges : S 
e Ps § sae pees | 2888 gq bs 
alo | Sess |ephes | es ba BS 
A125) es ee Siro a Z 
eS) rises | sets |rises | sets. \rises | sets. 

h. m.|h.m. |h. m./h.m.)/h.m./h.m.| h. m h. m 
1w.'7 104 28)7 54 33)7 O4 390 41 mill 8a 
2'Th 11; 28 6| 33 1) 39} 1°28 lt O7 
3\F. 12) 25 1). 3B Dy. Oa 
A'S. 13) 4725 3). 33 3)'G9) 3286 0 46 m 
BiSu.\¥ 144 287 9/4 33/7 4/4 58/4 6m] 1 46m 
6\M. 15| 28} 10) 33 5} 38¢15 O 2 40 
Wu 16} 28 11) 383 6 eae | aL! 
8|W 17, 28) 12) 33 Gis 3b aieTe 4 49 
9/Th 18).5238 <18) 33 Sis SE BATT DOT 
1O/E 19): 28]: 14) 33 G c| 9 24 174 
11\S 20} -28)..15) 33) 10 E110 20 8 O 
12\Su. |7 2114 28/7 16/7 Scl7 11/7 388)11 4m| 8 44 m 
13|M. 99 IS) AT) 33 13)” 8&1 -45 9.95 
14\Tu.| 232s" 1e|} 33) 12) 38.022 a 1072 
15iw,| 24 29 1°) 3 lE| 39] O 56 iO 36 
1GiThacsee eo) 1S) Sd)? TA BS ese i1 12 
17E DOr PO) aOb\ 484| 14)? 40) Bay 11 47 
18)S OF 29 Gis 434! 4p) Ac] 2 UB 0°23: a 
19|Su.|7 26/4 30/7 2114 554 12/4 411 3 if a| 0 58 a 
20|/M. 96) 7.30).- 21) 35) 15| 41) 4° 5 1 45 
91Tu.| 227). Sines, SG 15) 42) 4 44 2 24 
29IW.| 27 Si me?! 3 1€). 42) 5 39 3 AZ 
93/Th | 28) 32)° 2) 3%} 1€] 43) 6 32 4 12 
Z4/F". De) 321-222 a 16) 43) -7°46 5 26 
25)S De tol Po lao (1). 4 | Siz 6 37 
96| Su. |4 2914 33/7 23/4 bc 14 1.17 444 ¥y. 8 al 7 38a 
97\M. dl ala somoe | A 4510 53 8 33 
OAT | 299) 34) 24 Bo) 18) BERS + es 
9gIw.| 29! 35) 24) Al 18, 46 'O 14 


24 41| 181 4710 34mi11 2 
25, 42] 19| 48121 [11 48 


a. ee Pen ERS 
1841. ] December has Thirty-one Days. 33 


Phases of the Moon. 


Last Quarter, 5th day, 7h. 7.9m. M. 
New Moon, 1th 420.4 A. 
First Quarter, 20th “ 9 405 = A. 
Full Moon, Vote ek ee 


a a 3 Moon rises or sets. 
2 PRY io ged Bal a4 
=] ae Ch tote eS. i Sunpays, &c. 
ph} ae -O yi hi Lape 
3} 6a Sy |p aed B gi 
7 om) oo ~~ Re} 
Aa, ss | maa laa E> 
rises. | rises. | rises 
h. m. | h. m. | h.m. | h.m. 
1| 217 | 731 al 737 al 742 | D Perigee. C. C. North. 
21317 | 849 | 854 | 858 
3} 412 10 6 |1010 11012 | * gr. W. elong. 20° 30’. 
4.5 4 11121 {1124 1/11 24 5th. Pres. Van Buren b. 1782 
ier tenets bee ciate a ad Sunday in Advent. 
6| 641 | 034m) 035m) 0 35m Beg. Ist ses. 27th Congress. 
7/728 | 145 | 144 | 143 |[C. P. Ply. Wor. C. C. Gr. 
O° S816 £255") 2:53" (42.50 
wD. Oe oe 4 O be 
10,956 | 514 | 510 | 5 4 
11/1049 | 621 | 616 | 610 
S./11 42m] sets. sets. | sets. {3d Sunday in Adv. DH©O 
13} 035a| 458 a) 5 4a) 512 |dp)1,h.-C.P. Cam. N.Bed. 
14,127 | 559 | 6 5 | 612 | Washington d. 1799. 
15) 215 ARE 7 6 712 |16th. Tea des. in Bost. 1773. ‘ 
1663 0|8 4 | 8 8 | 813 |g) Q. Ge. fire in N. ¥.1835 
Picoat |-9 6G |.9 9 | 912 [D Apogee. 
181425 10 7 10 8 1011 


ciate —————_ | ——— | um ___ 
——— —— 


: s+ 2 |e ee | + + « IC. Ips. and Ded. 
21} 6 27 | 010m) O 9m) 0 10m} winter begins St. Thomas. 
2 59 | 22 218°) 215 jo99. Tanai 

241852 | 330 | 396 | 309 anding at Plym. 1620. 
25|.9 bI = |. 442 1 45 431 | Christmas day. K) 2x8. 


oe ———$—~ | qc — 
_—_—_—_—— 


S.|10 53 a} rises. | rises. | vises. |1st Sun. after Christmas. 
271158 | 351 | 358a) 4 5 al2cth. St. Stephen. 
; F : a 513 | 519 |Innocents. 

m| 6 2 633 | 637 dand s3. p Perigee. 
a1 | 749, | 758-\07 55 | ade oe! oc, 
31; 257 | 9 7 | 910 | 91k Earth nearest the Sun. 


34 STATISTICS. 


STATISTICS OF MANUFACTURES. 


GREAT BRITAIN. 


Cotton, (calicoes, cambric muslins, dimities, lace, guaze, velvets, 
shawls, etc.) consuming 280,000,000 Ibs. per annum, annual value 
$162,000,000, employing 800,000 people, and 80,000 power looms ; 
woollen, (cloth, kerseymere, baize, worsted, flannels, blanketing, car- 
peting, etc.) annual value about $96,000,000, employing 500,000 per- 
sons; the annual import of raw wool is about 30,000,000 Ibs ; metal- 
lic ware, annual value of produce $80,000,000, persons employed 
350,000 ; linen, annual value $30,000,000, (lace, lawn, cambric, shirt- 
ings, sheetings, sail-cloth, etc ;) hides, tanned, etc., consuming 42,- 
800,000 Ibs., of which about 33,500,000 were imported, annual value 
produced $68,000,000, employing 300,000 persons; malt liquor, 
9,500,000 bbls., value $125,000,000; candles, 118,000,000 jlbs., value 
$16,000,000 ; soap, 120,000,000 Ibs., value $16,000,000 ; glass, paper, 


spirits, starch, etc. 
FRANCE. 


The annual value of the manufactures of France is estimated at 
about $300,000,000 ; silk, $25,000,000 ; woollen, consuming 100,000,- 
-000 Ibs. of which 10,000,000 are imported, value $46,000,000; linen, 
(iawns, cambric, lace, plain cloths, sail cloth, etc.) $26,000,000 ; cot- 
ton, consuming 75,000,000 lbs; leather, $30,000,000 ; trinkets, per- 
fumery, jewelry, furniture, etc. to the value of $20,000,000 per ann.; 
soap, $6,600,000 ; starch and hair powder, $10,000,000 ; crystal and 
glass, $4,000,000 ; porcelain and pottery ; $5,000,000, etc. 

Dupin makes the following estimate of the comparative commer- 
cial and manufacturing power of France and Great Britain. 


FRANCE. GREAT BRITAIN. 
Men Power. Men Power. 

Animate Force - - : - - 6,503,019 7,275,497 
Millsand Hydraulic Engines — 1,500,000 1,200,000 

Tanimate ) Windmills . - - 253 333 240,000 
Force. Wind and Navigation - 3,000,000 12,000,000 
Steam Engines - - - 480,000 6,400,000 


11,536,352 27,115,497 
Add Ireland —_1,002,667 


Totals - - 


Total United Kingdom 28,118,164 


Thus the total inanimate force applied to the arts in France, scarce- 
ly exceeds the fourth of that so applied in the United Kingdom; and 
the whole animate and inanimate power of the latter applied to manufac: — 
tures andcommerce is nearly treble the amount of that of the former. 


PRUSSIA. 


Woollen, consuming 25,000,000 Ibs. value produced, inclusive of 
raw material, $30,000,000 ; cotton, $15,000,000 ; linen, $9,500,000 ; 
silk, (8,500 looms, 35,000 operatives,) gross value $4,500,000; metal- 
lic ware, glass, porcelain, leather, trinkets, &c. , 


STATISTICS. 85 


NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM. 


Woollen, $15,500,000; cotton, $9,800,000; linen, $18,000,000 ; 
lace, $5,000,000 ; refined sugar, $2,700,000 ; spirits, $7,600,000 ; beer, 
$22,000,000 ; tobacco, $5,350,000 ; oil, 5,600,000 ; soap, $2,000,000 ; 
leather, $5,350,000 ; earthenware, $800,000; books, 3,000,000; pa- 
per, $1,600,000, &c. in all, $130,000,000. 


OTTOMAN EMPIRE, 


Manufacturing industry is more advanced in the Asiatic portion of 
this Empire than in the European: the Turkey leather cannot be 
rivalled in other parts of Europe, and in the dyeing of silk, cotton 
and woollen, the artisans of Turkey are not surpassed by any. Silks, 
cottons, linen, fire-arms, sword-blades, soap, glass, copper utensils, 
fine carpets, and camlets, &c. are produced. 


SWEDISH MONARCHY. 


The manufactures of Sweden are inconsiderable, and those of 
Norway are of even less importance ; and, although fostered by gov- 
ernment, they cannofsustain themselves against foreign competition. 
Pottery, glass, woollen, bar iron, some silk and linen, ships, leather, 
paper, spirits, &c., are the prominent articles. ‘ Even in the com- 
mon trades the work is lazily and ill performed, and charged at a 
high rate; and it is a curious fact, that some great merchants in the 
western towns send their linen to be washed in London.” 


RUSSIA. 


The manufactures of Russia, notwithstanding the efforts of gov- 
ernment, are in a rude state. The most national are coarse fabrics 
from hemp and flax, sail-cloth, duck, sheeting, sack-cloth, all of 
which are supplied of a better quality and at a cheaper rate by Rus- 
sia than they can be had elsewhere. The encouragement afforded to 
the distillation of rum from grain has succeeded to such a frightful 
degree, as not only to exclude foreign spirits, in a great measure, 
from home consumption, but to enable from 25,000 to 28,000 persons 
to destroy themselves annually by intemperance ; the annual value 
produced is estimated at $60,000,000. The patronage of government 
has also attracted foreign manufacturers, who have established ex- 
tensive manufactures of iron and arms, and some silk (16,000 looms) 
and cotton ‘70,000 looms) manufactories ; but these do not supply 
the internal demand. Coarse woollens, in great quantity, are made 
by the peasants for family use. 


CHINA. 


The industry and ingenuity of the Chinese in all that relates to the 
conveniences of life are remarkable ; the origin among them, of sev- 
eral arts of comparatively recent date in Europe, is lost in the night 
of time ; they have, from time immemorial, fabricated silks, porce- 
lains, and cottons of great beauty and excellence, worked with the 


36 STATISTICS. 


precious metals, polished and cut precious stones, excelled in em- 
broidery, dyeing, carving ivory, and making musical instruments ; 
their filigree work, artificial flowers, paper-hangings, paper, lackered 
ware, &c., are also remarkable. 


UNITED STATES. 


Cotton, 795 mills, with 1,246,503 spindles and 33,500 looms, pro- 
ducing annually 200,500,000 yards, of the value of $26,000,000, con- 
suming 77,758,000 pounds, employing 62,000 persons, 40,000,000 
yds. are printed ; woollen, annual value of manufacture, $40,000,000, 
employing 50,000 persons; glass, porcelain, &c., $3,000,000; paper, 
$7,000,000 ; chemical articles, $1,000,000; hats and caps, $11,000,000, 
employing 18,000 persons ; cabinet ware, $10,000,000 ; leather, glass, 
candles, soap, cutlery, fire-arms, sheet-iron, hardware, &c. 


RATES OF POSTAGE. 


On a Single Letter composed of one piece of paper. 


For any distance, notexceeding 30 miles, 6 cents. 
Over 30, and not exceeding 80 10 

Over 80, and not exceeding 150 121-2 
Over 150, and not exceeding 400 18 3-4 
Over 400 miles 25 


A Letter composed of two pieces of paper, is charged with double 
these rates; of three pieces, with triple; and of four pieces, with 
quadruple. ‘One or more pieces of paper, mailed as a letter, and 
weighing one ounce, shall be charged with quadruple postage ; and at 
the same rate, should the weight be greater.” 


Newspaper Postage. 


For each Newspaper, not carried out of the State, in which it is 
published, or, if carried out of the State, not carried over 100 miles, 
1 cent. Over 100 miles, and out of the State in which it is pub- 
lished, 1 1-2 cents. 


Magazines and Pamphiets. 
If published periodically, dis. not exceeding 100 ms, 1 1-2 cts p. sheet. 
2 


Ditto do. dis. over LEB AR “ 
If not pub. periodically, dis. not exceeding “ “ 4 rs & 
Ditto do. dis. over Cont ae ik “ 


Every printed Pamphlet or Magazine which contains more than 24 
pages, on a royal sheet, or any sheet of less dimensions, shall be 
charged by the sheet: and small pamphlets, printed on a half or 
quarter sheet, of royal or less size, shall be charged with half the 
* amount of postage charged on a full sheet. — 

The postage on Ship Letters, if delivered at the office where the 
vessel arrives, is 6 cents; if conveyed by post, 2 cents in addition to 
the ordinary postage. 


JANUARY. 


ANOTHER happy new year to all our friends—to our enemies 
we have nothing to say, for we know of none. 

We are happy to meet you again at the commencement of 
another year, after having experienced the bounties of a kind 
Providence through the year that is past. We have been blessed 
with general health, and we are under obligation to say that 
nothing but our own dissentions and other follies have occurred 
to check our progress in knowledge, in wealth, and in general 
improvement. 

Americans have much reason to rejoice that their lot has fallen 
in pleasant places—that they have a climate favorable to the pro- 
duction of every thing useful to man—and that a fortunate con- 
currence of circumstances has enabled them to establish a gov- 
ernment of their own choice, which secures more freedom to the 
great body of the population than any system has done, either in 
ancient or in modern times. 

We say a fortunate concurrence of circumstances has enabled 
them to do this, for if we look at the variety of conflicting opin- 
ions of the present day, we must be satisfied it would be ex- 
tremely difficult now to marshal and organize twentysix, or even 
thirteen “sovereign and independent States,” into one general 
sovereignty, that should regulate all their foreign relations and 
their intercourse with each other. 

If I am not much deceived, we should now find it extremely 
difficult to alter a single clause in the compact, which, at present, 
binds us together as a nation, although three-fourths only of the 
States are required to sanction such as a measure. We ought 
not, therefore, to think with complacency on any measures that 
shall have the least tendency to a dissolution of our union. If 
it be only “a rope of sand” that binds us together, the rogue 
that shall attempt to sever us may yet find that we have a strong- 
er one in reserve for him. 


JANUARY WEATHER. 


We expect our coldest weather during this month, and we 
sometimes find the thermometer down to twenty degrees below 
zero. In-Albany, whose latitude is nearly half a degree north 

4 


38 JANUARY. 


of us, we see that some of their thermometers indicate 28 or 30°. 
But we usually have a January thaw, and this sometimes lasts 
two or three weeks. 

It is generally thought that a deep covering of snow is benefi- 
cial to the soil, and asnow storm in May is called the poor man’s 
manure. But this enriching of the soil by a snow fall must be a 
fanciful idea, and cannot be entitled to much consideration by the 
husbandman. It is true that snow falls lighter than rain, and 
therefore does not beat down the earth to the injury of vegeta- 
tion, and it penetrates the soil more thoroughly than a sudden 
shower which often beats down one portion of the field, while it 
washes away the other. 

When deep snows fall early in winter, the earth often remains 
unfrozen during the season, but we are not sure we gain by this. 
Hard frosts change the relative position of the particles compos- 
ing the soil, and this sets the whole in a state of fermentation in 
the Spring, and operates in some degree asa ploughing or a 
harrowing. It may be partly owing to this circumstance that our 
most northern States are naturally more productive of grass than 
those which lie so far south as not to be disturbed by the frosts 
of winter. 

It is a remarkable fact that Providence has ordained the most 
rapid growth and the most bountiful supply of the principal arti- 
cle of sustenance for our cattle in our coldest States. And this 
is not the only advantage enjoyed by the inhabitants of a rigor- 
ous climate. The frosts of winter often render easier our means 
of travelling than any we possess in the warmest part of the 
season, and infinitely better than those enjoyed in a more south- 
ern latitude during winter. 

Our long winters are also more favorable to intellectual im- 
provement than are those climes where the business of the great 
body of the population may be pursued at a profit throughout the 
year. This may be one reason why Scotland is more intellectual 
than Spain—and Germany produces more scholars than Italy. 
Be this as it may, no district in the United States of equal extent 
has a more intelligent population than New England. 

Virginia has a territory nearly equal in extent; her climate is 
extremely favorable to vegetation. ‘There winters are mild and. 
of short duration. Cattle require not half the winter fodder that 
is needed in New England; yet there is no comparison between 
her population and her power and those of New England. Labor 
is not esteemed so honorable as in districts where all submit to 
it. But it is believed the climate is not so favorable to the 
growth of a vigorous population as that of a colder latitude ; and 
that should slavery be ever abolished and field labor be rendered 
fashionable to the whites, they will never become a match for 
their northern brethren. 

Virginia was settled about fourteen years earlier than Massa- 


JANUARY. 39 


chusetts, her first permanent stand being in 1606; while the 
landing of our fathers on Plymouth rock was in December, 1620. 
It is generally understood that the first settlers were not so well 
qualified to contend with the obstacles that are always presented 
in the settlement of a new and distant country. ‘These emigrants 
were bred in London and its vicinity; many were wholly unac- 
quainted with.the use of the plough and the spade, and when they 
had partially learned it they chose rather to leave this drudgery 
to the slave, whom the mother country chose to encourage them 
to bring from Africa, than to be personally engaged init. On 
these dark sons of toil the reflection of the sun’s rays from the 
tilled field made less impression than did that of their abject 
condition on their untutored minds. 


WINTER EVENINGS. 


When our barns are well stored with the sustenance of beasts, 
and our granaries with their appropriate burthens, — when our 
houses are filled with the good things which our short summers 
enable us to bring to perfection, and our wood houses groan with 
the burthen of the forests ready prepared to raise the temperature 
of our rooms, how comfortably we draw up a chair to the evening 
fire ; and, while the good mother, seated on one side of the light 
stand is mending the coats and preparing the stockings and the 
leggings for another encounter with the cold and with the snow, 
we take out our glasses and read aloud either from the Bible — 
the Boston Cultivator — or the Cultivator’s Almanac. 

While the little ones in the corner let their prattle subside for 
awhile to listen to something not so old nor so good as what they 
have often heard from the first named book, they give profound 
attention to something that does not convey instruction in that 
formal and methodical tone to which they have been used at 
school—not dealing largely in abstract maxims and in aphorisms 
so profound as not to be understood—but treating of subjects 
tangible, and closely connected with the business of life. Thus 
old and young are often kept awake, amused, and sometimes 
instructed by a train of every day thoughts that have passed 
through anotheyr’s brain. 

We can readily agree with Solomon, that there is nothing 
really new under the-sun, though many old creations are contin- 
ually assuming new forms. Solomon utterred some capital old 
saws concerning money and suretyship—and the fair sex; and 
if his life had conformed to his maxims, he had been a better 
man. Even three thousand years ago it was found easier to 
preach than to practise, and this is one of the discoveries which 
will be longest remembered. 


40 JANUARY. 


Some have doubted whether chronology has been faithful in 
regard to the writings of this old sinner; and truly from some of 
his remarks concerning money, we might be led to suppose he 
wrote since the era of the American Revolution. But we must 
account for his accuracy in describing modern transactions, and 
the properties of this important article, wealth or money, on his 
leading maxim, that there is nothing new under the sun. 

We have not the book before us, but as far as our recollection 
serves he said, three thousand years ago, “ Riches take to them- 
selves wings and fly away.” Now paper money was not 
know when he made use of this expression, and if it was true in 
his time, when nothing was called riches but real, intrinsic, tan- 
gible and weighty substances, how much more readily will the 
truth of the maxim be acknowledged, when we find the world 
abounding in money that not only “takes wings,” but is often 
made wholly of “wings.” Modern improvement has not been 
satisfied with letting money take wings to itself that it might cir- 
culate more freely, but wings, in many places, are its sole 
substance. Wings, and nothing but wings, constitute its es- 
sence. 

We need not wonder at the ease with which millions fly away 
with one single defaulter, but we may still admire the wisdom of 
Solomon, who gave so long ago such an accurate account of 
wealth. He sometimes called it “vanity.” Could he, if now 
living, have hit the mark nearer, when a thousand companies in 
one nation are authorised by law to manufacture modern wealth 
out of one of the lightest and cheapest substances that can be 
found? The winds of Heaven are too rude to blow upon it— 
verily all is vanity. 


COMFORTS OF HOME. 


With our children about us in our snug winter quarters, we 
hear the howling winds and battering storms around our premi- 
ses without dismay, provided we have not built our house “ too 
high.” We moralize on the rashness of those who, at this sea- 
son, have entrusted themselves to the great deep, and we listen 
to the sad tales of the coasting mariner, whose bark has proved 
unequal to the gale. We next compare our comforts and our 
security to those of the western pioneer, who encroaches on Indi- 
an rights and Indian hunting-grounds, until the vengeful savage, 
provoked to madness by the wrongs he suffers, attempts redress 
in his own mode, altogether careless of consequences, and re- 
gardless of the mighty array of “pale faces” who come upon 
him in wrath, and make great professions of a desire to teach the 
aboriginal good manners. | 

But the red men must remove in a body beyond the “ father 


JANUARY. 41 


of waters,” and surrender to better cultivators the inheritance 
given them by their Creator. ‘These they may possibly be al- 
lowed to “occupy till we come”; and they may expect to enjoy 
their new home in peace until we want more land! When we 
have driven him to the ,western coast, whither shall he turn ? 
The big water, west, is all too wide to be crossed by his canoe, 
and he must either turn to the left and mix with the Mexican 
Spaniards, whose ancestors showed so much kindness to his race 
when they took care of all his gold on their first friendly landing 
in the country; or he must turn short to the right, and submit 
to that mighty emperor of the Artic Circle, whose hunting 
grounds are without stint, and whose game is the human race. 
Here he may find protection under this Northern Bear equal to 
that which has recently been granted to the Polish nation. 


THE RIGHT OF THE STRONGEST. 


Power, superior might, must still rule the christian as well as 
the savage world, and the time of equal justice has not yet come. 
But when the true spirit shall predominate, justice will be 
measured by a better standard than the superior length of the 
sword. We still gaze at the stars and wonder what destiny 
awaits us; we dread the appearance of the fiery comet, the pre- 
cursor of war! Oh foolish generation! Oh mad subjects of 
rulers, whom you sometimes call and treat as servants! How 
long will you ascribe your guilty wars to destiny? And while 
you own no master, shift off the responsibility of your maddest 
acts of legislation to a superior power—to destiny ? 

War can scarce come without your bidding. Britons—Amer- 
icans—you, above all men may control the sinews of war. You 
hold the questions of peace and war between your thumb and 
finger. And you have only to say tothe monster, as you marci 
to the ballot box, thus far shalt thou come and no farther. The 
stars and the fiery comets will not be in haste to make war when 
they find you unwilling. If comets have mystery about them, we 
begin to see through it, and we have the testimony of Astron- 
omers that some of their long-tail worships can be as easily seen 
through, as the conduct of a noisy politician who figures at an 
election. 


COLD WEATHER. 


We often find as the days begin to lengthen the cold begins 
to strengthen, and our coldest weather seldom comes before the 
middle ofthis month, when the days have long been increasing in 
length. Neat cattle in our latitude seldom suffer with cold. If 

; 4e 


42 JANUARY. 


they are sheltered from the rains and kept away from a current 
of air, the warmth of their bodies, retained by the thick and fur- 
red coat of winter, will be sufficient. In very cold nights if left 
loose, they will seek their beds in a spot contiguous to that now 
occupied by one that has earlier gone to repose, and although they 
never crowd so closely as swine, they we!l understand the advan- 
tage of sleeping with more than one in a bed. 

When cattle are tied up ina close barn, the air soon becomes 
foul and unfit for further use. It must be as unwholesome for 
them, as it is for human beings to breathe foul air. Some far- 
mers open a window occasionally behind their cattle, and this ad- 
mits a draft of air that is injurious, as it is only a partial current. 
Some make a hole near the roof to let the foul air escape, and 
this is preferable to the other mode; but the safest and best way 
is to let neat stock have the liberty of choosing their own bed. 


WINTER SCHOOLING. 


Parents and guardians who can attend to it ought to know 
how their children have been employed at school—if they seem 
to take no interest in it the children will be likely to think it of 
small importance. If the parent feels incapable of instructing 
he can hear a lesson read or at least can manifest that he feels a 
lively interest in the progress of education. 

Parents should endeavor, when the winter school has com- 
menced, that their children should not miss a single day, and 
that they should never go late to interrupt the school. People 
who have never taught can scarce conceive of the difference of 
progress in schools where these rules are observed. If the child 
is always allowed to stay from school when he or she does not 
feel quite right, they will soon feel little interest there compared 
with one who is constant. After a few forfeitures of place or of 
standing on account of absence or tardiness a boy will lose all 
ambition and will make no progress. ‘The school-house is not 
the place for him. He cannot figure there and his thoughts will 
wander from his studies. 

‘Tardiness causes much trouble to the instructor and to the 
whole school, and parents who have ever taught, or who have 
ever been taught, well know the evils of this neglect, but yet 
they will not be particular to prevent it. 

The constancy and punctuality we speak of is meant for the 
term. We would not be understood as wishing to keep scholars 
at school through the year. They will often gain as much by 
going steadily half a year as when compelled to attend during 
the whole of it. So a vacation of a week or two has not the 
same ill effect on a school as the absence of a portion of its 
scholars. In case of a vacation all begin anew and on equal 
terms—no interest which has been acquired is now lost. 


JANUARY. 43 


SCHOOL TEACHERS. 


There are comparatively few who are well qualified to teach a 
numerous school, The faculty of government is not always in- 
tuitive, and is never easily acquired. How can we expect young 
schoolmasters and mistresses to govern a large family well when 
they have never had any example of good government on even a 
small scale at home? Great patience is required, and patience 
is not a very popular virtue. Itis said by those who have tried 
it, to be extremely apt to tire one in the exercise.—A very small 
portion of mankind ever acquiring through a long life, a habit of 
self government. What then can we expect from young teach- 
ers? They generally fail in the art of—government. They 
attempt, like most legislators, to govern too much. They meddle 
where they may better let alone, and run into trouble that they 
might well avoid. 

In school it is not proper that every offence should be noticed 
— “It is not meet that very nice offence should bear its com- 
ment.” ‘The master may be much better employed than in spy- 
ing out offences. It was sarcastically said of one dignitary of 
this profession—he kept good order and that was all he did keep. 

It may not be proper to say the rod should never be used, 
but we have always remarked that those who use it least govern 
best. So many of us have suffered under the rod that it has be- 
come a very unpopular instrument of correction, and when it can 
be dispensed with we advise the teacher to do it. 

There are many modes of punishing that give less offence 
to parents and create less ill will in the scholar. He may be re- 
quired to tarry after school and take a private lecture—or he 
may have a public one if the first is not effectual—he may be 
put on the lazy seat—the whispering seat—the noisy seat—or he 
may be required to stand up by either of them and here are al 
ready six grades of punishment. 

A turbulent or refractory one may be shut in a dark closet, and 
every school house should have one for the purpose—and if we 
are obliged to repeat these often, it is easier than to use the rod, 
and is more effectual. We have seen masters who never could 
punish when they were not in a passion, therefore when the 
scholar was fortunate enough to escape the first ebullition of 
wrath he had nothing to fear. If the inkstand or the ruler or a 
book or a stick were not at hand for him to seize and smite, the 
offender often escaped, and some of the most knowing ones 
learned to dodge and escape the missile behind the seat. 

But the chief object of a school is instruction, and masters 
should direct the most of their attention to this object. They 
should endeavor by all means to gain the good will of the stu- 
dents and then the business is half accomplished. Emulation, 
zeal to please the instructor, are before compulsory means, and 
commendation properly bestowed will prove a most powerful in- 
centive to industry. 


44 JANUARY. 


A faculty to instruct, to explain, to interest the student is not 
found in every teacher. Ignorance confines some to the very 
letter of the lesson and they know not how to explain. And in- 
dolence rules supreme over other masters. They will sit at their 
ease and hear lessons recited by the half hour—and they will 
even go so far as to ask the rehearser some questions,—but 
these are always the identical ones that are printed in the book 
—questions that require no thought in the asking, and nought 
but memory in the scholar who is prepared to answer. 


CELLARS FOR WINTER. 


Every family wants a good cellar both in winter and in sum- 
mer, and this room is almost as valuable as any in the house. In 
winter our vegetables must all be kept below the frost or ruin 
follows them. Potatoes may be stored in large piles, and if a 
portion of their native soil is stored up with them they are not 
injured for they have been Jong familiar with such company— 
but turnips of all kinds are more shy of burial in the earth—they 
have been used to air in their native beds and they must not be 
wholly deprived of it. 

Apples and most fruits must be kept from frost, but the cooler 
we can keep them the less liable are they to rot. cider should 
be kept in the coldest corner of the cellar and then it will require 
no vent—no raising and no depression, of its native vigor. Air 
admitted to it for any length of time ruins its spirit and its taste. 


GUARDING WINTER CELLARS. 


Well built cellars require in Massachusetts no artificial bank- 
ing, and thus by a little attention at first great trouble and ex- 
pense are saved. We now build with good underpinning stones, 
and if the proper kind of soil is banked up against these we 
need have no fears of frost. Sandy loam is better for this pur 
pose than either gravel or clay 


FEBRUARY. 


eee 


Tis is our short month, and we hail it as the month which 
gave birth to the immortal Washington. He was born on the 
twentysecond day, in the year 1732, and was forty three years 
old when he was appointed commander-in-chief of the American 
army. He was fiftyseven years old when he was elected Presi- 
dent of the United States, and died in his sixtyeigth year. 

_Few have conducted so nobly, and few have had the opportu- 
nity. 


FEBRUARY WEATHER. 


We often have a turn of very fine weather in February. If we 
have built our houses in proper places, where we can see and 
feel the sun in winter, and have placed all our evergreen trees on 
the cold side, so that they may break the force of the winter 
winds and not obstruct the rays of the sun which we wish for at 
this season, we can warm our rooms in a sunny day with half the 
expense which is required in a northerly exposure. 

The morning sun is pleasant at all seasons of the year, and we 
may contrive to enjoy it by setting our buildings in a proper 
manner on any farm in the country. Our bed chamber should be 
so placed that if the cock forgets to crow, we may be hailed by 
the rays of the sun that will negative the plea of ignorance, and 
warn us in due time that the day has commenced. 

As March approaches, we have high winds that give the new 
fallen snow no rest, and heaps are piled up in the narrow roads 
so high as to forbid the passage of any four footed beast. Then 
all hands to the shovel to clear a path for the patient ox that fears 
to take the lead through this new covering of the earth, and waits 
for his master to urge him to the task. The drift is at length beat 
down; the teams and the wood sled, well loaded with red cheeks, 
red noses, and watery eyes, are then directed to the hotel, and 
great care is taken to drive close to the door, and then round and 
round the door yard, to show the utmost good will to the landlord, 
on account of his important employment. 

He, good soul, mean time is busy with his spoon instead of a 
spade, and pleased with the appearance of the red cheeks, adds 
to them a still deeper glow before they are ready again to en- 
counter the cold white heaps that must again be passed. Now 


oe 


46 FEBRUARY. 


the younkers are full of frolic, and if any escape without a plunge 
into this soft bed, it is through some lucky mistake. All are in- 
tended for equal honors, and a firm hold on the sled stake will 
not always save. The stake and all the hangers on are often 
found in a horizontal position, and he who rises last must replace 
this important portion of the vehicle that carries all. 


SECURING CORN MOE. GRAAL. 


Indian corn is better for being kept on the cob until it is want- 
ed for use, provided we can keep it from vermin. But this, in 
most cases is found difficult, and it is safest to thresh it and put 
it in casks or chests before spring returns, and let the cats have 
access to the granary, where they will do no mischief if the 
casks are covered. Some farmers set their corn barns on high 
stools of wood or stone, and place a projecting cap at the top, 
directly under the barn; they also take care to remove the steps 
of the door at every visitation to the corn barn. In this way, 
vermin may be kept out. 

But it is impossible to keep English grain from rats and mice, 
unless we thresh it in good season ; and when we have time, it 
is better to thresh it immediately after harvest than to delay it 
until winter. By threshing early, we can make use of the straw 
to mix with our corn stover. Oat straw, wheat, and barley straw 
mixed with husks, make good winter feed for cattle, and this is 
found better than a constant feed with hay. 


TENDING CATTLE. 


No kind of cattle should be suffered to stroll over the fields or 
in the roads in the winter season. They gain nothing by it but 
the ill will of neighbors and of travellers, who are often impeded 
on their journey by a drove of dumb loafers, sunning themselves 
in the strects. On the contrary, we lose immensely by suffering 
the manure to be scattered and frozen in winter. We should by 
all means confine them in the yard during the day and let them 
enrich the soil or muck that we had the prudence to throw into 
it in autumn, after it was cleared of the old manure. 

Water for cattle, in winter, should be furnished in a trough 
that stands in a pleasant place and out of the wind. Cattle will 
not drink half the usual allowance when obliged to stand in a 
cold wind. ‘They will seldom put themselves to much inconye- 
nience to procure drink more than once in a day, but when it is” 
handy they will drink several times. 


FEBRUARY. AT 


CARDING CATTLE. 


We notice that many writers speak highly of the practice of 
carding through the winter, but we cannot say that we have ever 
seen any advantages attending it. Some good ostlers will not 
permit a hair to be carded off in cold weather. They say their 
horses want their coats on in the winter season. The carding of 
neat cattle in winter sets them to itching and rubbing, and they 
seem more uneasy for the operation. We doubt whether we 
may not better let their hair remain until spring, when the warm 
weather will assist to disrobe them. 


od 


ICE FOR SUMMER. COMMERCE. 


It is but a few years since any systematic plan was pursued to 
secure ice through the summer, but now the article has become 
indispensable in our cities, and many farmers have a house built 
for the preservation of ice. Thisis the month in which it is 
usually cut from ponds or rivers, and vast quantities of it are 
taken to supply the home market. In add'tion to this, immense 
cargoes of it are shipped to Havana, in Cuba, and even to the 
East Indies, around the Cape of Good Hope. For these purposes 
very large wooden buildings are erected on the margins of 
ponds, and tools are used which cut the ice in such regular 
squares, that it is stowed away close in these buildings, and cov- 
ered over with straw or hay, either to keep the cold in or the heat 
out; and here the ice often remains till mid-summer, when it is 
taken into wagons ard put on hoard the ships. 

Mr Tudor, of Boston, has engaged, it is said, to supply the 
Havana market, and in consequence has obtained the sole right 
to do it. We understand that there is but a small per centage of 
waste in carrying it to Asia, and this has become a regular busi- 
ness. Much ice is cut out of Fresh Pond, in Cambridge, and of 
the ponds in West Cambridge. In February, farmers who have 
teams engage in this business, and are paid by the cord or ton for 
carrying it directly to Boston. 


AGRICULTURAL WRITINGS, ETC. 


During this month we have leisure to examine our agricultural 
papers and to determine whether we have received any new 
ideas from them that may possibly be of use to us in cultivation 
or otherwise. But we can scarce expect to get from any of them 
a system that shall be entirely applicable to our own farms. 
One farm ahounds in hilly lands more suitable for grazing than 


48 FEBRUARY. 


for other purposes—this must be managed quite differently from 
one that has much easy tillage land and requires to be often 
shifted from grain to grass, and back again. One farm lies 
close to the city market, and from this the heaviest and the bul- 
kiest articles should be expected such as cannot conveniently be 
carried from a distance. Al] kinds of vegetables including pota- 
toes must be sought on such a farm whence the marketer takes 
his drive and is able to return to the city each day in season to 
prepare tomorrow’s load. 


MILK FOR MARKET, 


The milk man must live far enough from the city. markets to 
find pasture for his cows, but not so far as to be unable to take 
his daily rounds. By carrying his product too far he converts it 
to butter and interferes with another occupation quite distinct 
from his, though a branch of dairying. Milk should be agitated 
as little as possible if we would keep it nice and not convert 
it into butter—for the purpose of carrying it quietly the tin jars 
should be perfectly filled and then corked, for it has been discov- 
ered by philosophers that no space which is completely filled has 
any vacuum! and when there is no vacuum farmers have found 
there is less liability to agitation of the solid mass. 

When ancient theorists first caught this idea they applied it as 
oddly as we see some theoretical farmers who have in their 
heads or books one or two correct notions about agriculture— 
they built up systems that astonish or discourage the indolent 
scholars of modern days,—but .we forget; we left our milk in 
jars and were advising how to take care it—luckily we had nota 
pailful of it on our heads when we stopped to notice the ancients 
and we thus escaped the fate of the maiden. Milk, thus plugged 
close, should be kept so until opened for delivery, and it cannot pos- 
sibly be improved in quality by any intermixture on the way. 

Spirit is rendered more palatable by reduction—by adulteration 
—wine is thought to be improved by raising its powers.—But milk 
and cider are each of them incapable of improvement by foreign 
mixtures. They are nature’s beverages, pure and good—“to the 
pure all things should be pure ”—no impurities should be inter- 
mixed—and market men must learn that all attempts to improve 
the milk direct from the udder of the cow will assuredly fail fo. 
please their knowing customers. 


FARMS DISTANT FROM MARKET. 


Those farmers who live remote from towns must pursue a dif- 
ferent system from that followed by those who live nigh them, 


FEBRUARY. 49 


and they cannot calculate upon supplying the thousand small 
items of the daily market. But if well managed such farms 
may be made quite profitable. In the first place the cost of such 
farms is far less; then we are farther removed from temptation 
to extra expenses, for there are fewer eyes to see us and fewer 
people to set bad examples. We may be troubled with shops 
full of tempting luxuries, even in remote corners, but we can 
better resist temptation, and the less number we have of se- 
ducing sellers the better. 


ee 


WINTER BUTTER. 


Those who live remote from large. towns and who find no mar- 
ket for milk may make butter through a part of the winter, or 
they may use the cream and give the pigs the slops. This is 
better policy than to let the cows go dry through a long winter 
and thus become so old maidish as to be unwilling to be handled 
in the spring. Two months is term enough for the cow to go dry; 
for though she needs better keeping when she gives milk, her 
habits become better and the milk will repay the extra expense. 
For this purpose roots of some kind should always be provided 
for them, and a very small patch of ground will yield enough for 
a dozen cows. 

There are different modes of making butter in winter, and a 
preference of one over the other may depend in some degree on 
situation; some who have large, warm, clean cellars prefer to let 
the milk be put there—they gather their cream and when they 
have collected enough for the churn they fill in and place the 
churn near the fire where it is often moved through the day and 
the cream gently agitated—at night the boys and girls take a 
turn and the butter is separated from the milk. 

Others prefer to let tue milk stand in-a dairy above ground 
and suffer it to freeze—the principal part of the cream will thus 
soon rise, and it is scraped off from the frozen cake of milk, put 
into the churn and treated like the last. 

Another mode still may be practised with success—heat 
the milk near to boiling as soon as it comes from the cow, 
and a great portion of the cream will soon rise and be ready for 
the churh. In each of these modes it is very proper that the 
milk pans should be washed before they receive a second supply 
of milk—we have known dairy women to be so particular as to 
use hot water for this pu:pose—and some set the pans by the 
fire to dry. In truth we must say that the sailor fashion of never 
‘was ing a dish so long as they may recollect what it last con- 
tained, though it may have many powerful arguments in its favor, 
has not yet been publicly advocated by our dairy women. 

Winter butter made in either of these modes will serve well 


% 


50 FEBRUARY. 


for family. use, but it will not bear a high price in market. That 
which is intended for the highest price, and which may be kept 
good through the year should be made in Autumn. September 
and October are the finest months for butter that is intended to 
be put down and kept long; and butter made properly and nice- 
ly packed, in these months will bring one third more money than 
that which is carelessly made and carried daily to city markets. 
Farmers therefore who live at a great distance may realize 
more profit on their butter than those do who sell as fast as they 
make it. Any one with very little attention can make butter that 
will taste sweet if eaten before it is cold. But butter thus made 
must be used like an indian bannock, or a buckwheat cake, or 
you encounter in it sour buttermilk enough to choke a rat. ‘The 
truth is we have yet discovered no mode for the preservation of 
buttermilk in the lump, and until this is effected our most prudent 
mode is to cast it out. By all means the butter that is intended 
to be kept sweet must be entirely free of that portion of the 
cream which is naturally inclined to part from it on churning. 


ee 


BUTTER TO BE KEPT. 


A majority of butter makers are opposed to washing their 
butter in water soon after it is churned, and fancy they would 
injure it by the operation; they, therefore endeavor to separate 
the butter milk by working the lump of butter, by repeatedly 
changing the position of the particles of matter so as to let it 
run off. Some beat pound lumps in their hands—others use lit- 
tle shovels and fear to let the butter come in contact with the 
warm -hand, for all melted particles are found to be injhrious. 
Salt is mixed in and much precaution is used to exclude this 
matter which is so liable to sudden putrefaction. 

But a far better mode of casting out this foul matter“is now 
practised by those who best understand how butter should be 
prepared to be kept The Dutch know it, and the Scotch have 
excelled in it, and butter has been so-put up that it has been for 
years kept sweet. It must be admitted by all who consider the 
subject, that as oil, or any thing oily will not unite with water, we 
need not fear that we can wash out any of the goodness of the 
article. We may use water enough to wash the butter away but 
we can wash no goodness out of it. When the butter is first 
gathered in the churn, the butter milk must be turned off and 


cool fresh water turned in, and then the butter should be dashed | 


again in order to get out all the particles of milk that remain in 
the little crevices or eyes of the butter. ‘This water may be then 
turned out and a fresh supply substituted for it. This must be dash- 
ed like the first, and you will find but little milky matter in it. 


ee > 


FEBRUARY. 51 


‘This dashing in two waters will be found sufficient, though more 
will not hurt the butter. 

Now, as this operation has taken place while the butter was 
soft, all parts of the butter have come in contact with this flood of 
water, and if any moist particles are still left in the crevices 
they will consist chiefly of water. Then salt the butter and this 
water becomes brine. You have brine, therefore, if any thing, 
as a substitute for that milky matter that soon grows putrid 1f 
left among the butter ;—-and brine, made well, is the best thing 
with which butter comes in contact. Yet, as this brine is 
not always perfectly free from the milk, if it can be wholly,ab- 
sorbed by any other substance we feel more sure our butter will 
keep sweet. We therefore make the salt as dry as possible. 
We let all the moisture evaporate from it, either while we place 
it in the sun or let it stand by the fire. This salt will then 
absorb all the remaining moisture in the butter, and leave us 
nothing but purity and sweetness. 


“> As the cream before churning may not have been well tended 


or stirred every day as it should be, or as some sour particles 
may adhere to our lump of butter, it is prudent to use a very lit- 
tle quantity of salt petre and of sugar in our salt. One teaspoon- 
ful of salt petre and two of loaf sugar will be sufficient-for a 
dozen pounds of butter, and these will tend to correct any acid 
or impurities that may have intruded. 


THE VACUUM OF THE ANCIENTS. 


In our last article on carrying milk to market, we alluded to 
the ancient notions of theorists on the subject of vacuums, 
or vaeancies—we are not speaking of vacancies to which 
modern politicians aspire—they create these, as some create an 
appetite, for their own enlargement. But the good old philoso- 
phers were men of mind, and cared little for eating and drinking. 
We do not recollect that their law givers ever forbade either, 
but these mental people set a good example in this way, and, 
before the discovery of ardent spirits, seldom drank any thing 
stronger than wine. 

The very mention of this subject makes one dizzy, and we 
came near losing our track. ‘The ancients treated largely on 
vacancy—on vacuum—and assumed the ground that there was 
no such thing in nature—that “nature abhors a vacuum”—and 
then, on this foundation—or rvther this want of foundation—this 
negative notion—they built up a structure that stood for ages. 
Babylon was a fool to it. 

The ancients were sometimes misled by first appearances—, 
they saw that water was inclined to favor the levelling principle 
—and though wine was often a great leveller, water was more 


52 FEBRUARY. 


uniform in its operations when it obtained the power. Wine 
operated on mind—it was a tornado, raising and putting low by 
force of one and the same current. Water was longer in accom- 
plishing its purposes, but its tendency was more uniform and it 
usually succeeded by continued perseverance. 

Wind and water were both much inclined to fill up vacancies, 
and whenever an opportunity offered each was found to rush in 
and fill any space that was threatened with any such disaster. 
From some such indications as these, theoretical men rather has- 
tily came to the conclusion, that there was no such thing as vacant 
space—“ that nature abhorred a vacuum,’—and this doctrine was 
so plausible, so acceptable, it was not wholly abandoned until 
the last century! How hard to overcome positive dogmas that 
have been delivered by rhetorical flourishes. 

The.great Mr Locke, in the last century, was obliged to labor 
hard to satisfy the school men, that these dogmas were not well 
founded, and he demonstrated fully, that if nature had no vacuum 
nothing could move—that all created matter would be confined 
as fast as square blocks, fitted tight in a chest. This doctrine is 
so plain and self evident that our only wonder is how he should 
have found it necessary, in his day, to say so much in support 
of it. 


H'OGS. 


The distinguishing marks of a good breed are—a broad back, 
a small head, small legs and bones, in proportion to size, and a 
guiet disposition. ‘Che cut below is a fair sample of a cross 
of the Berkshire and the Mackay ; and when we find hogs of 
this shape and of the disposition above recommended, we need 
not trouble ourselves about names or pedigrees, for they avail 
but little. 


eR 


ss Re een ee 
sf SA WES SS << < 


MARCH. 


Tis is always along month, and most people are pleased 
with his exit. But in some of the Southern States the work of 
planting corn commences before he quits the stage. In Virgi- 
nia, however, the Indian corn is not often planted before the 
month of Apri, though the plough is put in motion in March. 


CORN, DANDSOF) VIRGINIA. 


It has not been generally customary with Virginia planters to 
put manure on theircorn lands. They have planted the same 
fields from year to year, as our fathers in Massachusetts have 
sown rye, until the harvest would not pay the expense of cultive- 
tion. ‘Those Virginia plains were easily tilled, and planters are 
the last men to change their course of operations. 

But our whole country is now waking up to better practices, 
and we hope to see the time when Virginians wil] be persuaded 
that they too have lands that want nothing but skilful manage- 
ment to make them profitable. The regular rotation of crops has 
not been fully introduced in Virginia, and some planters are still 
tilling large fields of Indian corn without applying to them one 
particle of manure, or giving them any relief by a change of 
burthen. 


JOHN RANDOLPH’S PLANTATION. 


This eccentric Congressional orator owned a large plantation 
in the county of Roanoke—a princely fortune, as Mr H. Clay 
termed it—and since his decease, within three or four years, six 
hundred acres of corn, in one field, were growing on that planta- 
tion. We much doubt whether any lands, in any state, will bear 
to be cropped for along course of years with corn, or rye, or 
wheat, without we take some measures to recruit the soil. 

We must use manures, or we must let the grasses take their 
turn in the rotation unless our lands are so situated that the flood- 
ing of rivers will leave an annual deposite on the surface. We 
are not able to say how much corn or how much profit was re- 
alized from Mr Randolph’s plantation, but we know it is no un- 

5 


54 MARCH. 


common practice in Virginia, to continue to plant the same field 
when it will bear no more than ten bushels of corn to the acre. 
The planters have even been obliged to be satisfied with five 
bushels ! 

Now we have lands in Massachusetts that would bear no more 
than five bushels of corn to the acre, but we seldom plant such. 
We never think we are paid for our labor unless we can get 
more than five times five bushels. But lands which will produce 
no more than five bushels of corn will produce fifteen bushels of 
buckwheat, and that is worth quite as much as corn. 


HOED CROPS. 


We should always consider that all hoed crops are attended 
with much labor and expense. The horse plough must pass 
many times between the rows and every hill must be numbered 
and attended to. And where this is practis:d, whether on corn 
and potatoes, or as in the drill husbandry in England, on the 
grain crop of wheat and rye, the soil must be made so rich that a 
large harvest is expected, otherwise there is no hope of remunera- 
tion. 


SOWN CROPS. 


But the case is quite different when we sow our grain broad 
east and let it take its chance.. We can here manage six acres 
with less expense than we could one in Indian corn, and if we 
can find a substitute for this article, it will be good policy to in- 
troduce it and raise less of that expensive article. If we fail of 
acrop we lose but little, and most farmers can plant or sow a 
variety, so that if one kind fails another may be a substitute. 


OATS. 


Oats are raised in all climes, and the harvest is - enerally con- 
sidered as certain as any; but critical farmers arelearning that 
cats impoverish the land, and must not be too often repeated. 
We have indeed known some farmers to raise oats on a clayey 
soil year after year without any apparent diminution of the har- 
vest; but these men were cautious to plough in the stubble as 
soon as the oats were off. 

We are inclined to think that neither oats nor potatoes do so 
much mischief on a clayey soil as on a sandy loam, and in such 
ease they may be profitable crops where there is good demand 


MARCH. 55 


for them, but on light lands we must be careful not to run too 
much to oats unless we have plenty of manure. When this 
happens we may raise any thing. 


eee 


BARLEY. 


This grain is still much cultivated in Europe but not so exten- 
sively in Massachusetts as it formerly was. It is not a sure crop 
here, otherwise.as it yields more than oats and bears a much 
larger price, it would be the most profitable grain of the two. 
Nor do we find barley a greater exhauster of the soil, at least we 
get as large grass after barley as after oats. 


RYE. 


This grain is raised in all the states, and will grow on poor 
land, but when it has heen the constant crop for years, we find 
that the land will bear nothing else. But rye may take its turn 
in the rotation, and as it is better when mixed with Indian than 
wheat is, its cultivation should not be discouraged. 


WHEAT 


Is raised in great quantities in some of the Southern States, 
and mostof the States of the Union raise some of it; but of late, 
since cotton has borne a high price, planters who could raise that 
article have chosen to purchase most of their grain of all kinds 
from more northern States. Virginia and Maryland have never 
raised much cotton, and they have never given up the cultivation 
of this kind of grain. The planters in these States do not ave- 
rage more than eight bushels ef wheat to the acre, but as they 
obtain this without the use of manures, they realize something 
more than pay for the expense of labor. 

New York, Pennsylvania, and the Western States abound in 
wheat, and produce great quantities for «xportation. ‘The new 
lands enable the owners to raise many crops without manure, and 
as their lands are cheap, they afford to sell their grain low. ‘he 


prairies of the west will long be found better adapted to grain 
than to grass. 


56 MARCH. 


EUCKWHEAT. 


The old States of the south as well as of the north, must re- 
cruit their lands before they can compete with the new States in 
the article of grain. Buckwheat is still raised to some extent in 
Virginia, and there seems no good reason why it should not be 
extensively cultivated there. In New York and Pennsylvania, 
much attention is paid to buckwheat. We cannot always ac- 
count for the prejudices of mankind—farmers will do this and 
that without attempting to give a reason for the doing—they fol- 
low on in a certain track as long as the steam lasts, and then re- 
sign all their prejudices to the heir—not presumptive, as the law- 
yers have it, but venerative—and old practices are continued with- 
out a reason. 

There is a strong prejudice in many parts of the country 
against raising buckwheat. We cannot learn that it is an uncer- 
tain crop, ora difficult crop, but many have an idea that if they 
let it spread over their lands it will be impossible to eradicate it. 
They fear it may spread and prove as pernicious as thistles on 
their farms. There is no foundation for this prejudice. We can 
no more keep buckwheat in mowed fields than we can keep corn 
orrye there. It is true that the seeds will come up in spite of us in 
tilled fields, and we must use much the same means to kill them 
that we use to kill weeds. But this is no argument against it; 
this only proves that the buckwheat abounds in seed. 

We have ever found this as certain as any of the common Eng- 
lish grains, and though it is not so sure as Indian corn, nor will it 
yield so much to the acre, yet on dry or sandy loams we can 
raise it much easier than we canraise corn, and it is worth quite 
as much for fattening. We have known farmers to burn all their 
buckwheat straw out in the field where it was threshed, lest the 
seed should become scattered over the farm. We have heard 
farmers object that nothing else would grow after it, and we have 
heard them say the straw was worth nothing for cattle, and that 
it could not even be converted into manure when used for litter 
under cattle. But all these objections were made by people 
who had never raised any. ‘Those who have tried it tell a differ- 
ent story. 

On the plains of Virginia and Maryland three bushels of buck- 
wheat may be raised with more ease than one bushel of corn, and 
when the buckwheat. field is properly managed, the land is not 
impoverished although no manure is used, and although a full 
harvest be annually taken off. And if it is desired to enrich the 
soil rapidly, this may be done by ploughing under three crops of 
buckwheat in one year. 


APRIL. 


or 


{n the latitude of Boston the frost is usually out of the ground 
by the first of April and farmers are driving the team afield, 
winter is past, and we expect no more serious snows before De- 
cember. Sometimes however we are delayed untill the middle 
of this month before we can use the plough. 


VARIATION IN THE SEASONS. 


We notice that although one Spring is ‘sometimes two weeks 
earlier than another so that our planting may be finished much 
sooner in some years than in others, yet before the middle of Ju- 
ly we find there is no perceptible difference in the forwardness of 
the crops—and backward seasons are usually quite as prolific as 
forward ones are. Fruits in late cr backward seasons are more 
likely to escape the Spring frosts than they are in forward sea- 
sons; and it is not a good sign to see the blossoms put forth 
early. 


EARLY SOWING. 


As soon as the ground has become dry enough to be ploughed 
we choose to prepare it immediately for those grains which we 
denominate English—such as wheat, rye, barley, oats—for they 

-come to us from a colder climate, or rather they have been culti- 
vated in a conntry where the summers are not so hot and in our 
climate they often suffer by the intense heat of summer. 

Therefore when we have the coldest summers these grains gen- 
erally suffer least ; and when we can bring these grains to matu- 
‘rity before the hottest or most sultry weather comes on we suc- 
ceed better than when we sow more late. In sultry weather the 
growth of the stalk is so rapid it sometimes is found to be split 
open when all the juices are lost; they run down on the stalk 
and make it look rusty. 


MANURING FOR ENGLISH GRAIN. 


‘We are cautious to use no green manure on Spring grains. 
They cause the very evil which we wish to avoid by early sowing. 


58 APRIL. 


They become rotten and most effective at the critical time when 
the grain should grow most slowly—when the sap is forcing its 
way into the kernels of grain. 

Old, or rotten manure often operates better, and when properly 
applied it is not injurious to wheat—it aids to bring the grain 
forward more early than it otherwise would be and helps to avoid 
the dangerous crisis spoken of. We know of no other reason 
why coarse or green manure should not be used on Spring grain. 


PLUUGHING FOR SPRING GRAIN. 


We usually sow our spring grain on lands that were planted 
the preceeding season—and if they were thoroughly tilled very 
few weeds or grass would be seen on the surface. Such land 
may be ploughed two or three times to render it light, and 
ploughing such land has a better effect than harrowing as the 
harrow rather beats the under part of the soil more closely to- 
gether. 

So we are obliged to plough not less than twice rough and 
stoney lands, for otherwise we cannot stir up and render light the 
bed where the grain is to he. But some plain fields that are ea- 
sily ploughed are covered with grass and weeds of the preced- 
ing year. Corn stubs and stocks are also found in abundance. 
Such lands should not be turned up twice in the same Spring for 
when we do it we turn back all this litter and rubbish to the sur- 
face instead of keeping it below where it would rot and soon 
become food for the growth of the new crop. 

In such cases it is found better to use the harrow before the 
plough and thus tear in pieces the old stocks in such a manner 
that they may be completely covered with the plough. But 
when we take this conrse we should be careful that our furrows 
be quite narrow—only half the width of a common one, and in 
this way we may pulverize the soil as finely as by two coarser 
ploughings and at the same time keep beneath the surface most 
of the vegetable matter that would otherwise be a nuisance, but 
which now is converted to manure. 

Some farmers choose to go first with a small plough and split 
open the hills where the corn grew—some takea cultivator which 
operates as well as a harrow to tear apart the old roots—and ci- 
ther mode is better than to plough such plain lands twice when 
there is much surface matter to be buried up. 


BROAD-CAST SOWING. 


This phrase is used in contra-distinction to the drill husbandry 
method of sowing grain, much practised in England. Broad-cast 


APRIL. 59 


sowing is almost universally practised in this country and re- 
quires less labor than the other. In the practise of this mode it 
is very necessary that the grain be thrown evenly over the sur- 
face, but this requires skill and care. Stakes should be set at 
each end of the field as a guide to the sower, and these he moves 
as he advances from breadth to breadth. 

Some sowers strike a small furrow across the field for a direc- 
tion for each bout in sowing—and some take narrow breadths 
and are governed only by the track they made in the preceding 
route. And some make a practice of taking wide breadths, sow- 
ing only half the seed at first, and then going over the field 
again in the other direction crossing the first. This last is at- 
tended with more labor but the grain is more likely to be even. 


DRILL -HUSBANDRY. 


_ Sowing grain in drills has been much practised in Europe. 
The farmers there use machines, sometimes called drill-barrows, 
for this operation; and some have been at great expense for un- 
wieldly machinery, calculated to sow many drills at a time. We 
have heard that a thousand dollars have been paid for one of 
these, and we think as good ones might be made here for ten’ 
dollars. 

The English have argued long in favor of the drill system for 
the grains that we strew broadcast: and have contended with 
much plausibility, that the small grains want tilling as well as’ 
root crops, or corn and beans; and there is no doubt that larger 
harvests may thus be realized—but the great question with Yan- 
kees, always is, “will it pay the extra expense P” 

We must bear in mind that land is two thirds lower here and 
labor two thirds higher than in England—both these facts oper- 
ate against the system of employing a great amount of labor on 
asingle acre. We find it easier to raise a hundred bushels of 
corn on two acres than on one, and then we have twice as much 
land prepared for other following harvests that yield more net 
profit than corn. It is thus with the 1aising of grain—we often 
have fields that we have been tilling and that we wish to lay to 
grass ;—we sow grain with the grass seed, not because we expect 
a profit from the grain, but because we dislike to sow grass seeds 
in the spring, without having some crop that will grow fast 
enough to keep down the weeds; thus, grain is often a secondary 
object. In England it never is, for wheat on the general average 
bears a price twice as great as in this country. 

Mes 


en) : 
St da 


66 APRIL 


THICK SOWING... 


We sow a less quantity of grain to the acre than they sow 1 
Europe, where grain is the great object of the farmer and proba- 
bly we might raise more by sowing thicker. Foreigners con- 
tend that wheat and rye, should be sown so thick, that each 
kernel should send up but one stalk instead of a dozen or more as 
they sometimes do. ‘They contend that the heads will be longer 
and that more grain is produced. They sow from two to three: 
bushels to the acre, while we seldom sow more than one and a 
half bushels in spring and one in autumn. 

But there is a limit to thick sowing, and if our seed should 
cost nothing, we may spoil our harvest by too thick a forest of 
of stalks: there must be room for light and air between them. We 
have yet another reason for thin sowing. We think our grass 
seed, which we sow with the grain; is not half so liable to be 
summer killed when the grain is reaped off in case of thin sow- 
ing as when we have sown thick. For we produce a less sudden 
and violent change from shade to sunshine. Where the grain 
has been sown thick and taken off in hot and dry weather, the 
young grass has been wholly ruined by the change. But this is 
not likely to happen in England, because of their moister and - 
cooler climate. 

Outs are often sown late in this country, and they sometimes pro- 
duce well in such cases; but they are believed to be a native of 
a cooler climate than ours and our hottest weather does not suit 
them. We obtain heavier oats by early than by late sowing, 
and the straw is also more valuable as it is not so liable to rust. 


————e 


TRANSPLANTING TREES. 


April is the most suitable month for transplanting ; and, though 
some gardeners recommend Octover, we think their reasons are 
not sufficient, and we have been more fortunate in our April 
transplanting than in any other. 

Trees should ever be taken up with great care, so that the 
roots be not broken. If any happen to be broken they should be 
treated like the right hand and the right eye of scripture. It is 
no matter how early the young nursery tree is taken up, provided 
we can keep it in a cool place, until the earth, where it is to be 
set, has become warm, and this may not be before the last of this 
month. We sometimes bury the roots of the tree in a place 
where the sun is not powerful and let it stand until the starting 
leaf shows that the tree will remain no longer inactive. We 
then put it where it is permanently to remain. The ground has 
now become so mellow we place it about the roots and take care 
that they shall be spread out just as they were in the nursery. 


APRIL. 61 


We never set trees deep, but to keep the roots sufficiently 
moist we lay on the surface about the tree, a forkful of hay, or 
litter, or coarse manure, and this checks the evaporation of mois- 
ture from the earth, to such a degree, that no water is needed 
about the roots in addition to what falls from the sky. This lit- 
ter should be trod down close, and, if need be, to keep it in 
place, some stones may be placed on it, and this will afford 
abundant support to a tree without any staking or tieing up, pro- 
vided we do not transplant any that are over large. 

Evergreen trees may be set out later, and some prefer the 
month of June. When taken from a good nursery there is not 
much danger of losing them: their fibrous roots are there so 
multiplied they soon find support in their new home. In the 
forests we find them with only two or three roots to a tree, these 
are not filled with fibre, and we must take particular care in 
transplanting them. 


ON BUILDING, 


When we have resolved to build we set our carpeuters 
to work as soon as April, for we know not how long we must 
keep them. They perform more work in a day in June, but if we 
delay too long we may be obliged to keep them in December. 
Some of them will make a small deduction from their wages 
when they work in that month; but their labor is not worth half 
somuch. Their fingers are cold and few can work so fast as to 
warm them when the labor is in the open air. 


————e 


FARM BUILDINGS. 


Many rules have been given for building, and that which John 
Rogers gave, “build not your house too high,” should never be 
disregarded. A man who has great surplus wealth may as well 
make a display of it in this manner as in any other. He employs 
those who are glad to exchange their labor for his money, and 
his taste thus takes a better direction than the miser’s, who starves 
himself to “enrich an heir,” or the glutton’s, who shortens his 
days for the good of those who may succeed him. 

But the thrifty man, who has yet his fortune to make—who 
wants conveniences but cannot afford to indulge in luxuries, 
should be extremely cautious lest he build too large. His car- 
penter, if he has not another pressing job on hand, will some- 
times advise, “ build a good house while you are about it.” And 
his kind neighbors, who do not expect to foot the bills, will be 
liberal in their advice as to size and appearance. ‘The painters 

6 


62 APRIL. 


will say he needs a high house—the masons will tell him that 
Jow houses are apt to smoke—and the salesman, who has stores 
of nails and glass on hand, will be right eloquent in pointing out 
the advantages of a roomy house—while his wife and children 
will be so pleased with the idea of any description of a new 
house, that they wait until it is up before they become dictato- 
rial in regard to size or form. 

But, before the house is completed, the good man must alter 
his plan half a dozen times, and make twenty additions that he 
never contemplated, to satisfy all who are to occupy it. Anaddi- 
tional dairy here—a wash room there, to save the kitchen, which 
will answer well for a sitting room—a pump room that will save 
going out for water—a spacious wood house that may have 
apartments in it, to save the good rooms of the house, &c. &c. 
And after a capacious house is built it must be furnished ! 

How a large house looks without furniture! These rooms and 
chambers must all have something to fill them. All these rooms 
must be taxed ; the assessors appraise the house and they set its 
value almost as high as if they intended to be purchasers, and 
this is repeated from year to year, as long as the poor man lives 
—or rather as long as he is allowed to occupy it. In addition to 
these expenses of a first outlay and of taxes, the large building 
must be kept in repair. This amounts to a trifle the first year, 
but in five it must be painted anew if we would keep along 
with our neighbors. 

How often we see a man expending four thousand for a dwel- 
ling house when he might be amply furnished for two! Losing 
the interest on this extra capital and paying out annually in 
taxes, in repairs, and for labor to keep it swept and garnished, 
nearly enough surplus to keep a family in bread. We see this 
yearly but we take no warning; for the poor sufferer seldom 
complains of his folly abroad, and is not half so proud of show- 
ing the true cause of his embarrasment as the man who has snf- 
fered from another’s follies, or from wounds in the cause of his 
country. 

Every farmer should have a good dairy room and corn barn; 
he wants good sitting rooms, sleeping rooms, and a large cellar. 
These need not be very costly if he looks only to convenience. 
He wants a good barn for his cattle, but here he need not be 
extravagant. If he plans well he will make a small roof—the 
most expensive part of the barn—cover a great number of cattle 
and their winter food. 


CELLARS FOR BARNS- 


No barn in the country should be built without providing a 
cellar under the whole. A cellar forty feet square and stoned 


APRIL. 63 


up on two of its sides, will cost a farmer but little; for it may all 
be made of his own otherwise useless materials, and by labor 
that is cheap compared with the mechanic’s labor. Such a barn 
may be made to hold twice as mnch hay as one without a cellar, 
and the unloading of the hay is attended with far less labor. It 
may be thrown down below the floor into one part of the cellar, 
and the cattle may be tied or allowed to run loose in the other 
part, where they will lie more warm and comforatable than in the 
upper loft. 

If the ground is sideling the cellar may be made the more 
easily, but if it is level, the ground may be so thrown up that 
teams will have a good chance to enter into the floor way, and 
there is no great gain in driving through a barn when the floor 
way is of a good width so as to admit of the cattle’s passing by 
the loaded cart. One roof covers the barn, cellar, and all; and 
when we can have double room in a five hundred dollar barn by 
an additional expense of fifty or sixty dollars for a cellar which 
is the most convenient part of it, we waste our means foolishly 
and lose advantages that were within our reach if we neglect 
to do it. 


LOCATION OF A FARM HOUSE. 


As convenience is the first thing to be consulted in building 
we should choose a house spot on land that is neither very high 
nor very low. Ifa house is set on the peak ofa hill every thing 
must be carried to it at a disadvantage. Wood, farm produce, 
&c. must be obtained at extra cost; and water, a most important 
item in a neat house, will not run up hill. 

On the other hand, a house should not be set in a valley. 
Some have set houses thus under a mistaken idea that it would 
be warmer than on higher ground. But it is well ascertained, 
that in cold nights the air in vallies is colder than that which is 
on the hills; hence it is, that vegetables in low Jand are soonest 
bitten with frost. 'The heaviest particles of air are coldest and 
sink below those that are warmer—so that we gain nothing in 
point of warmth for our cold climate by going into vallies. It is 
true we sometimes avoid the high winds when we conceal our- 
selves in shady vales, but we may contrive to break the force of 
these winds on higher grounds. 

But we cannot always choose our house spot. If our land is 
a plain and circumstances render it convenient for us to build 
here, we should be careful not to dig our cellars too deep. We 
are generally deceived here by first appearances, and almost 
every man wishes, when too late, he had set his house a foot or 
two higher. On a level piece of ground the cellar should not be 
dug more than two or three feet deep, and if the dirt thrown out 


64 APRIL. 


is not a sufficient banking, it is better to bring some from a dis- 
tance than set the house lower. 

In setting a house we have other objects in view in addition to 
warmth of situation. We want air in summer as well as a quiet 
atmosphere in winter, and we should take care not to set a house 
where the breezes that are most agreeable and prevalent in sum- 
mer can be obstructed by woods or hills, or other buildings. All 
should be open to the southwest, from which point only we must 
expect air in the hottest days. AJ] obstructions to a free circu- 
lation of air should be on the north and west of the house, from 
which quarter we are generally willing that the winds should be 
less violent. 


LOCATION OF “BARN AND. OUT HOUSE s. 


The out buidings should be so placed as not to prove nuisances 
to the dwelling house. If the barn or the hog-pen is near the 
house and on the south west side of it the effluvia therefrom in a 
warm day will be too annoying to all who are not quite familiar 
with these receptacles of manure. All buildings of this kind 
may be differently placed and health and neatness may be pro- 
moted with very little care. Barns are often set on the opposite 
side of the road from the house obstructing completely a fine 
prospect. They are generally more convenient when placed on 
the same side with the house. We save crossing the muddy 
highway in bad weather, and we can easily make an artificial 
walk to them when no road intervenes. 

The hog-pen should be placed where it may readily be ap- 
proached with a cart to bring in litter and carry out manure, and 
when it is well tended there is not much to be feared from its 
effluvia. It should not be very distant from the other out houses 
as we have to feed the grunters principally from the offal of the 
house and dairy. 


PROTECTION OF BUILDINGS. 


We wish to guard our buildings from excessive cold, heat, rain, 
lightning, and decay from age. Cold is changed to heat by 
means of coal, peat, and wood, placed in the fire-place or stove, 
and trees guard the north west from cold winds—these trees 
must be evergreen or they will afford but little protection in win- 
ter when they are most needed. ''o guard against excessive 
heat, trees with thick leaves should shade the house on the 
south. ‘These trees should never be evergreens—we want trees 
here that do not hold their leaves in winter. 

To protect from rain, good shingling and clap-boarding are 


found best. And from lightning many procure iron rods to con- 
duct down the fluid, but tall trees near a house are a protection. 
If they run higher than the house the lightning is more likely to 
strike them than lower objects, and if they are no higher the 
lightning prefers green wood to that which is dry. To keep 
buildings from decay paint is used on the sides but it is not 
found useful on the roof that is shingled. 


—_— 


MECHANIC’S LABOR. 


Many mechanics charge nearly twice as much for their labor as 
farmers obtain. One argument in favor of it is their trade costs 
them something—another is the wear of the tools they furnish 
for the work, but, these items are not sufficient to justify so great 
a difference in price. A carpenter’s trade or a blacksmith’s or a 
chair maker’s costs but little in this country. A boy put out to 
one of these trades receives nothing at twenty-one excepting his 
clothes—a boy put out to a farmer receives one hundred dollars. 
The Mechanic’s trade then has cost him one hundred dollars only 
—and the use of a set of tools on the average would scarce 
amount to ten dollars a year. 

But we have known jouvrneymen who found no tools to charge 
nearly double the common farming price. It has been no uncom- 
mon thing for a journeyman to receive twenty dollars per month 
through the year, while a farmer of equal talent and merit has 
found it difficult to obtain twelve dollars through the year—and 
many have taken up with ten—board in addition in each case. 
But the mechanic urges strenuously that he can be employed 
only a part of the year on account of the weather in winter. 
How is the farmer in better condition? But the blacksmith, the 
chaise maker, and the cabinet maker cannot urge this plea—and 
all might have employment through the year if they did not set 
their compensation too high. 

Farmers cannot afford to pay such high prices and they must 
learn to do small mechanical jobs with their own tools in leisure 
seasons of the year. ‘They may mend their rakes, ploughs, hoes, 
and many other tools instead of going to a distance and paying 
great prices to boot. Every large farmer may have a coarse 
work bench where he may employ himself in a rainy day and 
do a score of little jobs that he must pay out cash for doing if he 
employs another to work in his stead, and he may in this way 
call into exercise the faculties of his boys and teach them all the 
use of tools. When the professed mechanic will put his labor 
at a reasonable price he may still be employed. 

A neighbor of ours not long since complained that it was hard 
to raise money by ep of butter from his farm. He stated 


66 . APRIL. 


that some of the mechanics whom he employed would charge 
more for a job of work that could be finished while he was milk- 
ing a cow than the whole mess of milk would come to after he 
had been at the expense of making it into butter! 

It must be a good cow that will make one pound a day—one 
milking will give enough for half a pound—butter is often sold 
for sixpence the half pound. We are inclined to think a mechan- 
ic often charges sixpence for a job that will employ him no 
longer than the milking of a cow.—Now it should be remember- 
ed that butter making is called the most profitable business of 
the farm, but if the farmer can earn no more while milking than 
his neighbor who is merely wearing out tools during the same 
time, he gets very poor pay for keeping his cow summer and 
winter. ‘To put the farmer on a footing with his neighbor me- 
chanic, his cow should be giving continual streams of milk during 
the day—then her keeping and all the labor of making the milk 
into butter would stand against the cost of the mechanic’s tools 
and the wear of his tools—Very few cows give milk through the 
day ! 


~- 


‘“‘ April showers bring May flowers.” 


This has been a favorite observation of farmers, but we seldom 
suffer for want of rain in this month. May and June are the 
months in which we suffer most from want of rain. When these 
are wet enough we are seldom short in the hay harvest. We 
often deceive ourselves in regard to the weather which is most 
needed during the different months; and Providence regulates 
this matter better than we should if we took it into our own 
hands. Wet seasons, though vegetation looks green and beauti- 
ful, are not always productive of the most valuable harvests—we 
must have sun and heat to mature the growth or it is not valu- 
able. “a 


MAY, 


May hath thirtyone days. This we learned in rhyme many 
years ago, 
“Thirty days hath November, 
‘ April, June and September— 
February, twentyeight alone, 
All the rest have thirtyone. 


Men of thirty, forty, and fifty, go to the Almanac to learn the 
number of days contained in a month. It would not require a 
great effort of the memory to treasure up this amount of knowl- 
edge, to be used as occasion requires. Apart from February, 
which is such an oddity that all remember it, there are four 
months only of the twelve that deviate fromm the highest number, 
thirtyone—and these four are alike. Yet how few remember 
these four months of thirty days—November, April, June, Sep- 
tember! Most people will recollect them better in rhyme than 
otherwise. Three minutes resolution would fix them in any one’s 
mind. 


eee 


PLANTING. 


May is the great planting month of New England and is next in 
importance to July. Labor during this month commands a high 
price, and all hands are busy with preparation and with seeding. 
Less corn and rye are now raised than formerly within thirty 
miles of Boston, and people are giving more attention to grass 
and to vegetables for the large markets. 


—— 


MANURES. 


Coarse manures are used principally for hoed crops, as they 
are not suitable for any kind of English grain. ‘Those kinds 
which are made from neat stock and from horses, are sometimes 
mixed, in the spring, with loam or peat, to warm these substances 
and tu keep the manures from heating too much. Some farmers 
prefer to haul their coarse manure directly on to the tillage land 
and there mix it by means of the plough. 


68 MAY: 


APPLICATION OF MANURES. 


Farmers differ much in the mode of applying their manures to 
the fields. Some plough them in to a great depth—some lay 
them on the surface and partially bury them with the harrow— 
some put a large shovel full into each hill of corn or potatoes and 
there bury it with the seed. Some imagine that nothing is lost 
by placing manure on the surface of the fields, and contend that 
nothing evaporates or is blown away excepting watery particles, 
leaving all the valuable salts behind—and others contend that by 
laying it on the surface as well as by burying deep we lose a 
great portion of its goodness. 

One writer thinks the salts ef manure sometimes sink many 
feet beneath the surface, and he cites an instance of water ina 
well more than one hundred feet deep, that was impregnated by 
manures applied to the surface of the ground; but there is no end 
to the fancies of theorists, and we should be cautious of being 
led astray by those who have no practical acquaintance with the 
subject. 

As to the notion that any goodness of the manure can sink 
down deep in a cultivated field, we should consider that in our 
heaviest manuring we never cover the earth more than one fourth 
of an inch thick at any one time; then how is it possible that 
this can be washed down toany great depth. Suppose we should 
take a flour barrel, fill it full of loam, and then cover the surface 
one fourth of an inch thick with manure—we will next throw in 
water and make a leach of our barrel of loam and manure— 
would the water be colored any by the manure after leaching 
down through a foot of loam ? 

This experiment can be easily tried by any one. We think 
in this case, that the water would be without color and without 
strength—that all its richness would be lodged in the loam. We 
certainly would not give much for it to sprinkle on our grass or 
our garden. If any salts of manure were ever carried down 
three feet from the surface, in a cultivated field, it could never 
be by filtration through loam or any other soil—and we much 
doubt whether any would pass through a body of sand of the 
same thickness. 


——— 


COMPOST MANURES. 


As it is not advisable to bury manures deep, and as we find they 
assist us more when we partially bury them and intermix them 
with the surface soil, it is well to make compost heaps whenever 
we conveniently can, and when we have thus partially decom- 
posed the manure, we can quite easily bury it deep enough with 
a common harrow, and thoroughly intermix it with the soil, even 
if we applied twice as much as we have named for a dressing. 


MAY. 69 


When composts from heaps are applied thus to the surface, it 
is a good plan to let the heap be stirred so much that most of the 
seeds in the heap may vegetate before the crop seeds are planted 
or sown. In some cases the heaps may be so stirred; and insome 
cases, as in raising ruta baga or beets, we can spread on our 
manure and harrow it in on several days some distance apart. 
This will save much labor of hand weeding, and will so incorpo- 
rate the manure with the soil, that the seed of plants may take 
an immediate start and outrun the weeds. 


THE CORNFTEDD. 


Maize, or Indian corn, was not known in Europe until our an- 
cestors found it in this new world. The Indians furnished con- 
siderable quantities of it to the first voyagers, in the Mayflower, 
after their landing at the Plymouth rock, in December, 1620. 
The Indians had no mills by which they would grind the corn. 
nor storehouses in which they could lay it up: they often buried 
it in the earth to keep it safe in time of war. 

They sometimes pounded the kernels between a couple of 
stones and made meal enough for « cake. This was for compa- 
ny, or for extraordinary meals, but in general they cooked it by 
the process of parching, and with this cooked food in their wal- 
lets they could run or fight as long as one of Bonaparte’s soldiers 
with crackers made of fat ani flour. 

Indian corn is now, and ever has been a favorite and almost an 
indispensable grain in the United States. Itis probably the most 
certain to yield an average harvest of any species of food which 
is relied on in the country. With good tillage it will withstand 
the drouth beyond any of our loed crops, and with proper care 
we always secure a good harvest. 

Potatoes, which will grow in any soil, are often cut off with 
drouth, and turnips and grass suffer from the same cause. Eng- 
lish grain of all descriptions is liable to rust, to mildew, to blast, 
to worms and to flies. Beans are destroyed by excessive wet- 
ness, and other vegetable productions fail on account of the diffi- 
culty of procuring good seed. But corn, Indian corn, never fails 
us unless we first neglect to cultivate its favor. Forty bushels 
may be raised on a single acre in almost any season which we 
have known. Not more than two seasons in fifty have proved so 
cold, so wet, or so dry, but we could obtain forty bushels to the 
acre. 

Yet, to be sure of such a harvest, much care must be bestowed 
—the ground must be well tilled and well manured or we cannot 
expect so great a harvest. The field must be planted in hills or 
in drills, and the horse plough or harrow ought to pass among the 


70 MAY. 


rows not less than three several times during the month of June 
and the first week in July. 

Yet corn is not our best crop in the neighborhood of cities and 
of great towns. It is an article that can be easily transported from 
a distance to such places, and as new lands require less manure, 
the owners and tillers compete successfully with those whose 
lands are more dear and require an annual expense for manure. 
But all our lands may be profitably employed in some produc- 
tion or other; hay in great quantities is wanted in cities; milk, 
butter, eggs, garden vegetables, fruits of all kinds, must be fur- 
nished by those who are not very distant from the market, and in 
addition to these we must add, a large proportion of the fresh 
meats consumed in cities is raised within a few miles of the 
market. Veal, pigs, and poultry are not brovght from a distance 
in summer, and the two first are always supplied by the farms 
in the vicinity of the markets. 

Strawberries, and raspberries, and native grapes are of recent 
introduction as fruits to be extensively cultivated; but strawber- 
ries are now cultivated by acres, and these must be raised near 
the market. The English cherry is now a common fruit and is 
extensively cultivated. ‘The black Mulberry may be easily rais- 
ed but we have seen only very few trees in the commonwealth. 
The fruit is more wholesome and nutritive than the cherry, and 
ought to receive more attention. 


POTATOES. 


Americans, as well as Irishmen, are now all fond of what is 
sometimes named the Murphy. If we would be very learned and 
establish our reputation as botanists, we should name the root 
Solanum tuberosum. This root was not known in Europe until 
the discovery of the New World, yet it now furnishes food for 
all classes in Europe, and for the poor, in some places, it is the 
principal article of diet. It is considered an indispensable com- 
panion of all the varieties of cooked meat, and with many it is a 
complete substitute for bread. 

The varieties of the potato are infinite, and though we usually 
propagate the several kinds by means ondtg tube or root, from 
which we expect, of course, the progeny of the identical spe- 
cies, yet, when we wish for new varieties,'we plant the balls 
that grow at the extremities of the vines, and from these we 
obtain them as various as we do from the seeds of the apple. 

From a single potato ball we may have early and late kinds,— 
large and small—mealy and watery—prolific and unfruitful, and 
thus we can suit ourselves when we become tired of our old 
acquaintance. It has been made a question whether the different 
kinds of potatoes are liable to be mixed when they are planted 


MAY. 71 


near each other, but it should be considered that if we plant dif- 
ferent kinds so near that the pollen of one blossom may fall on 
another, this will not alter the product of that year, for the pota- 
toes are formed and almost grown before we see any seed-balls, 
and are half grown before we discover any blossoms. 

Potatoes were once supposed to be quite beneficial to the ground 
on which they were raised, but the public sentiment in this res- 
pect has undergone some change. We cannot find that greater 
crops follow this than the Indian corn, which has always been 
supposed a great exhauster. The wild potato was a poisonous 
root and it has not the power to sweeten every soil on which it 
is grown. 


ee 


THE DAIRY. 


With most of the farmers of New England the dairy is an 
object, and though many merely supply their own wants, yet it is 
important that the milk should be so kept as to yield the most 
valuable product. Butter and cheese, made for our own use, 
should be at least wholesome, and economy teaches that we 
should make them in the best manner, for we thus obtain a larger 
quantity. 

It has become customary for large farmers to build ice houses 
in which to place milk and other products of the dairy, but when 
a farmer has a good, deep cellar he may do well without an ice 
house. The first object with the dairy farmer should be to pro- 
vide an abundance of good feed for his cows; for, if they are 
not well supplied with food, he may look in vain for full pails. 
One or two acres of land ought to give pasturage to a cow 
through the summer, until the fall feed is ready to be cropped, 
and there is no difficulty in bringing pasture lands to this state 
of productiveness, without manuring, if the plough is properly 
and seasonably used. 


—— ae 


MILKING. 


The next point to be attended to is to see to the milking; for 
it is in vain that we keep good cows and keep them well unless 
we see that the milk is properly taken from them. Some farmers 
trust this business to children, and some to grown people who 
do not milk so well as children. The cows should be treated 
kindly and coaxed to a compliance, for in vain we may try to 
force them to part with their milk. It is sometimes necessary to 
punish a fractious cow, that has not been well bred, but we must 
not expect much milk from her at such times. If she kicks 


fp MAY. 


maliciously she should be instantly punished, that she may have 
no doubt why she is punished ; bunt in general they will show no 
disposition to kick while a friend is drawing the milk, unless 
the udder or the teats are sore, and in such case we should never 
punish for kicking. ‘The cow should be bowed up to a stan- 
chion, and one of her fore feet may be held up from the ground by 
means of aring as large as the runner on a stanchion, into which 
her knee may be bent, and it may be kept there by any small stick 
six inches long. 

When thus bowed up in the fore leg the cow finds it difficult 
to raise a hind foot for any purpose, as she wants as many as 
three to stand on. But we should not calculate on adopting this 
mode unless in extreme cases, for it will generally answer a 
better purpose to let the cow stand free and easy than to fetter 
her. Cows that have been properly treated when young, are 
pleased to have a good milker come to their side and relieve them 
of a burthen that they cannot carry long without pain, but they 
always seem to wish to have the job finished at once and are not 
willing that the milker should spend a long time at their side in 
telling stories. 

The milk should all be drawn from the bag, but we should 
avoid spending a great length of time in doing it, lest we get the 
cow in a lazy habit of giving out her strippings. There is a due 
medium to be observed. The milker should sit on a stool close 
to the cow; for if she attempts to kick she will now do less 
mischief than if he sat farther off; and his left arm must always 
bear gently against the cow’s thigh so that if she raise her heel 
against him she will only crowd him away instead of striking 
him forcibly. He never need to fear in a position directly one 
side of the leg,—neither before nor behind it,—for cattle cannot 
kick in that direction. 


BUTTER MAKING. 


Our calves are taken away from the cows in May or sooner ; 
and now, when the new grass gives succulent food to them, we 
begin in earnest to make butter for ourselves or for the market, 
and before the middle of June, there is so much competition, that 
our butter has become a drug and we hastily sell it at half price. 
Then we begin to think of making cheese that may keep longer 
and afford us more leisure for a sale. We resort to this—we who 
live near great markets—because we are not confident of our 
ability to lay up butter in June, that will be good in the following 
May, or even in the winter. 

If we can contrive to lay up our June butter in a perfect 
mode, so that it will keep one year without injury, we may be 
sure of realizing double the price which we obtain for it in June, 


MAY. 73 


and th's may be done with very little attention and care. We 
premise that the milk dishes are washed clean, and that the milk 
is set in a good place and skimmed in due season;~in hot 
weather the cre'm must be daily stirred in the pots, and it ia 
well not to keep it longer than two days withont churning. It 
must have the right temperature at the time of its changing to 
butter, or it will not be so good. If it is too cold it will be too 
long in coming, and if it is too warm, it will come to butter 
too soon, and be so soft and pasty that it cannot be properly 
worked. 


es 


WORKING OUT THE BUTTERMILK. 


In February we enlarged upon the advantages «f making but- 
ter in snch a manner that it would continue sweet for a year, 
and we refer the reader to that month for our mode of getting 
out the buttermilk; but let us adopt what mode we please we 
must disenagage the whole of this sour matter, otherwise we 
cannot keep our butter sweet. 


TILLING AMONG CORN. 


A discovery has been recently made, that in tilling among 
corn and potatoes with a horse plough we cut off some of the 
roots and it is said we injure the corn! We have not heard that 
any patent has been claimed for this discovery, but we su-pect 
our ancesters knew something of the matter. In old times it 
was not thought injmious to cut off some of the roots, particu- 
larly as it was found difficult to stir the ground sufficiently with- 
out disturbing some of them; but corn may be more delicate 
than in former days, and we may be obliged tu treat it as differ- 
ently as females in some cases are treated. It may be necessary 
to keep it from the sun lest the leaves should curl and the corn 
turn green in June. 

It has actually been recommended by some writers not to use 
the plough in any stage of tillage, but to use the cultivator or 
little harrow, or the hand hoe, for fear some ef the corn roots 
should be injured. Now it seems to us quite as proper to advise 
us not to thresh our grain for fear we should crush some of it, or 
not to dig our potatoes lest we cut and spoil] some of them, as to 
warn us against cutting off corn roots. There are millions of 
them in every hill and cutting off the ends of some of them will 
cause them to shoot out with more vigor. The ground must be 
stirred and kept light until the roots are ready to extend through 
all parts of the soil, and in the fore part of the season we need 


74 MAY. 


not fear to disturb the roots; when the corn has become large 
we should then be cautious of cutting off too many roots; but 
we have never discovered any injury to arise from too much cul- 
tivation between the rows. 

At the first hoeing we usually turn the furrow from the corn 
and from the potatoes ; at the second hoeing we turn the furrow 
back again towards the corn, &c.; and at the third hoeing, about 
the first of July, we run our furrows near the middle of the va- 
cancies between the rows, or we use a small harrow or a culti- 
vator that shall not penetrate deep, and in this way we have no 
fear of hurting the roots. In grass ground or green sward land 
we use the cultivator in preference to the plough to save tearing 
up the sward. 


JUNE. 


June, by common consent has 30 days, and is one of our finest 
months. The weather has now become more settled, and al- 
though the heat may sometimes oppress those who are not bred 
to business and have nothing but the weather and their own 
thoughts to trouble them, the husbandman rejoices in the power- 
ful influences of a nearly vertical sun to expand his family of 
vegetable growth, for which he made provision in the preceding 
month. 


LEAVES OF TREES. 


The leaf is nov spread out to its full extent. At first it cau- 
tiously peep.ed out by the side of the bolder bud which nature has 
forced to advance, as the progenitor of another family. But now, 
encouraged by genial warmth, and conscious of the duty of pro- 
tecting the embryo progeny in the early stages, it expands its 
wing, and not only protects the delicate mother from the rays 
that might be too intense, but performs the important office of 
cook of the family, daily gathering from the atmosphere, and 
nicely mixing its sweets with the ruder supplies which are drawn 
through the parent trunk from the bowels of the earth. 

Leaves are vitally important in vegetation, and any plant may 
be soon destroyed by their deprivation. In form and texture, 
they are infinitely variegated, and each form selects trom the air 
something which is peculiar to itself! How wonderful that such 
an infinite variety can find, in a substance which all created 
beings are obliged to inhale, food and medicine peculiar to each! 
How ignorant we still are of the wonderful properties of the at- 
mosphere! 

In the latitude of 42° we have the broad button-wood leaf, (the 
sycamore of holy writ,) the grape leaf, a native of many climes, 
and the protector of a plant that delights in umbrageous groves 
and sheltered seclusion, while its fruit seems to need the powers 
of a tropical sun to bring it to maturity. The Catalpa is nota 
native of 42° of latitude, and barely endures our long Januar 
weather ; but in summer it fearlessly expands a canopy in Sach 
leaf. The Horse-chestnut also, is not bashful in claiming elbow 
room, and allows no neighbors to encroach on its domicil. 
Its broad and numerous leaves deprive the domain on which. ** 


76 JUNE. 


has settled of the influence of the sunbeams and the benefit of 
light. 

"The Rock, or Sugar Maple, has a smaller leaf, but is large 
compared with most others, and affords one of the cleanest and 
most beautiful shades in the country. Its leaves are exceedingly 
thick, and fill every limb. The tree grows strong and in beauti- 
ful form, and may be transplanted and propagated with as much 
facility as any forest tree in the State. It grows rapidly, and the 
timber is good. For fuel, there is none superior, burning like 
the walnut and kindling easily in its greenest state. 


er 


FRUIT TREES FOR SHADE. 


Since the introduction of the English cherry tree, it is much 
used as well for shade to the dwelling house as for its fruit. It 
is one of the very few fruit trees that branch out prop: rly and 
handsomely for ornament, and it ought to be planted by the side 
of every habitation. Its fruit is easily raised, and the tree is 
usually a constant bearer. Nursery men have been much in the 
practice of budding this tree in August, and introducing more 
early varieties of fruit than the common seedling bears; but lat- 
terly it is found that grafting is better than budding, and they 
split the Jimb in the month of March and insert a graft, as in the 
case of the apple. 

But where a shade near the house is the principal object, we 
have long been in the practice of suffering the seedling to shoot 
up his native branches and extend them as nature dictates. The 
tree thus forms a more handsome top, and grows three times as 
fast as when budded with some of the choice varieties A ma- 
jority of these seedling trees bear very good frnit without graft- 
ing, and when it is found that any, set for shade, bear no good 
fruit, itis easy to engraft them high on the limbs. 

Apple trees, pear trees, peach trees, &c., are quite unsuitable 
for shades about the door. ‘They branch out too broad, and their 
limbs are tov low anil shrubby for ornament, and they should be 
set by themselves in the garden and orchard. ‘The Siberian 
Crabb-apple tree, may be set more near the dwelling, for its 
branches run up at an acute angle, and are notin the way. ‘The 
crabb is a useful tree, and its fruit bears a good price in the 
market. It is not larger than many of our purple grapes of the 
woods, and as the cureulio fly has not yet found this small fruit, 
it is plucked off and used as a preserve, prepared in a similar 
way with the common apple, but without cutting—the fruit being 
used whole as cranberries are. 

_ Insetting fruit trees about a house, we should be cantious not 
to place them too near it. Weare apt to be deceived in this 
matter, as we are in setting in an orchard—we make not suffi- 


JUNE. 17 


cient allowance for their growth. No tree that is expected to 
stand many years should be set within a dozen feet of the dwel- 
ling, for by shading a roof we contribute to the rotting of the 
shinvles and the timbers. 


USEFUL BIRDS. 


A variety and an abundance of trees about a house, induce 
birds to come and build their nests and propagate their several 
species. ‘The cherry tree is particularly inviting to a small bird 
called, from his living, the cherry bird. His only fault is, he 
sometimes takes more than his share when cherries are scarce. 
But the robin and the mavis, or mocking bird, come and give us 
their songs for their supper, and when the cherries are gone they 
aid us to destroy the canker worm, the catterpillar, and a host of 
other worms that would multiply too fast if entirely neglected. 

These birds have strony inducement to make their nests near 
the dwellings of man, for they have a still more dreaded enemy 
of their race, which preys upon their young when nursed in re- 
mote woods. ‘The hawk is ever ready to murder and to rob 
where he has full sway, and if men understood their best inter- 
ests they would not follow the example, but would invite the per- 
secuted birds to come and eat, and build, and sing about their 
own dwellings. 

The mavis appears at planting time, and though he is sus- 
pected of interested motives, he cheers the planter with a song 
more varied and musical than the psalmody of the early pilgrims, 
—Plant, plant, plant—cover it up, cover it up—stay, stay, stay— 
more corn, more corn—here it is, here it is—too deep, too deep, 
too deep—pshaw, pshaw, pshaw—liberal, liberal, liberal—good 
to eat, good to eat, good to eat. And so he runs on until the 
laborers have gone to dinner, and then not intending to interrupt 
their work, he acts as a close inspector, and examines their fore- 
noon’s labor. 

It should be a universal rule among farmers to encourage these 
birds; they all destroy small worms and insects, and these are 
their principal food—they sometimes imprudently take the seed 
corn away, and are impatient of the regular harvest; but they do 
more good than harm, and a little extra seed in the hill, ora 
small quantity of like kind strown on the surface of the planter’s 
field for their especial use, will protect the part intended to 
throw up the future plant. 

* 


18 JUNE. 


CANKER WORMS. 


These are the most troublesome and the most fatal enemy 
which the apple tree has to contend with. His habits are well 
known, but it is found very troublesome to guard against his 
depredations. By the tenth of June, he leaves the tree, letting 
himself down by his silken thread, and burrowing to the depth of 
two or three inches under the surface of the ground. Here he is 
changed from his original form, and here they lie male and fe- 
male, until the latter part of autumn when in company they 
begin to climb up the body of the tree to find a secure-place'to: 
lay their eggs, where the young brood may have a plenty.of the 
young apple leaf as soon as they are old enough to open their 
mouths. 

The parents, a female grub and a male fly, continue: tovcrawl 
up the body of the tree in the mild days of winter, and in March 
and April, and when their progeny is sufficiently numerous they 
eat the young leaves as fast as tney put forth, and make the tree 
leok as red as if the flames had passed between all the limbs. 
The young are hatched just after it has become warm enough to 
force out the leaf of the tree, so that whether the season be*late 
or early, the young worm is ready at the precise time when the 
leaf is most tender and fit to nourish it, to deprive a wholetree of 
its foliage. 

Sometimes a late frost kills every worm that is hatched; but 
this must be so severe as to destroy also the fruit of the tree; so: 
that:there is no hope of the destruction of the one without the 
other. But it sometimes happens that too large a colony has: 
climbed upon one tree and the young in consequence are not 
sufficiently supplied, and if the food entirely fails t:em before 
they have arrived at their full growth they perish, and often the 
whole of them, so that. not one appears the next season. ‘his is 
what politicians might call over-doing or over-trading; which is 
likely to be followed by a failure. 


REMEDIES, FOR CANKER WORMS. 


The most usual method of preventing the ascension of the mil- 
'erand the grub up the body of the tree, is to apply. tar to. the 
body, so that they cannot pass over. This tar is. daubed 
on in a breadth of three or four inches, and sometimes a 
piece of canvass is first nailed around the tree to, prevent the 
tar’s touching the body, under an idea that tar is injurious 
to the tree. 

A more modern mode is a leaden trough filled with cheap oil, 
and with this trough the tree is encircled, so that the grubs can- 
not pass without first dipping in the oil, which at once de- 


JUNE. 719° 


stroys them. This mode is less expensive than tarring, and 
when it.is well done proves effectual in stopping the ascent of the 
rubs. 

: Various other methods have been tried, but generally without 
success. Some have tie: straw about the body of the tree, some 
have strown lime on the ground, others dig or plough about the 
roots, and many let their hogs into the orchard and induce them 
by scattering grains under the tree, to hunt for the grain and the 
grubs at the sume time; and another class of orchardists have 
practiced with better success, using a syringe and squirting lime 
water or tobacco juice on the limbs of the tree. Small trees 
have been rid of the worm in May, after he was half grown by 
shaking the limbs and rapping them with poles. But tarring and 
lead gutters have proved most effectual of any methods that have 
yet been extensively tried. 


THE BORER. 


There is a very troublesome worm called the bcrer that enters 
the body of the apple tree near the roots, and works his way along 
upwards, feeding himself as he goes, eating the chips which he 
cuts, and continuing about three ycars to stretch his carcase be- 
fore he is ready to become a fly. 

It was formerly supposed that this worm, like most others, 
changed to a fly as most worms do during the season, or within a 
year of his hatching ; but it is now believed by many that he re- 
mains a worm notless than three years, doing all the mischief he 
is capable of in the tree before he is ready for a change. Other 
trees are also attacked in the samnie way—the yellow locust and 
white ash are supposed to suffer most by worms entering the 
body in this way, and the locust in particular is often so cut as to 
fall down. 

We have not yet fully ascertained all the habits of these 
worms, and until we do, we may not be able to counteract all 
their trespasses, or to anticipate their motions. It is ascertained 
that the mother of the apple tree borer is a fly, about as ‘arge as a 
wasp, with two longitudinal streaks down her back. She seeksa 
place in the tree to deposite her eggs, and she usually lays ten in 
0000 
2900 
size of a pin’s head. The time of laying them is believed to be 
in June; she may commence as early as May, and she may lay 
them later than June. 

Her place of deposite on the tree is near the ground, where 
the bark is most tender, and where the young worm may more 
easily enter than he would in the dry bark of the tree; and she 


this position, each about the 


80 JUNE. 


generally prefers for her eggs a tree that has grass, or something 
green growing about the roots, for this not only affords protection 
to the egg, but it keeps the bark more tender, and renders an en- 
trance more easy for the young worm into the body of the tree. 
It is believed that the young worms never enter beyond the bark 
during the first sammer, and that if they are watched and pursued 


soon after they are hatched, they may be easily destroyed. 


————s 


REMEDIES FOR THE EVIL OF BORERS. 


Many farmers have been at the trouble of pursuing these in- 
dividual borers in the tree and digging them out; some have in 
this way cleared their orchards of them. Some use a wire which 
they run into the hole cut by the worm, and pursue him to the 
death; some have made use of a small gouge and followed the 
course of the worm, cutting from his track to the outside, and 
doing much injury to the tree—more, in some cases, than the 
worms would do. 

But the better mode of destruction is, “to remove the depos- 
ites,” made by the fly, before they are hatched, or, at farthest, 
before they have made any considerable entry into the tree. 
One of the best things to be done to keep off the fly, is to place 
something about the roots of the tree that shall not afford a 
pleasant harbor for the eggs. The wonderful instinct of the fly 
prompts it to seek a secure and a moist place, as we have alrea- 
dy noted. Now grass or any growing vevetable near the roots, 
keeps the bark of the tree moist through the largest part of the 
day. Any thing, therefore, that may keep this matter down, and 
render the roots of the tree as dry as any part of the body, will 
tend to prevent the entrance of the worm. It is true the fly 
sometimes lodges her nits four or five feet from the ground, but 
this is only when she finds there a more secure place for them 
than at the bottom. She may often find crevices under loose 
bark, that make a very convenient shelter for her young, and this 
is one good reason why we should scrape our trees and destroy 
all these shelters, by raking off clean all that is rough or shaggy. 
And it is noted by nurserymen, that where grass is suffered to 
ae high about their trees, there are to be found the nits of the 

orer. 

But we have still another remedy, and this is better than any 
we have tried; we wash our trees in June, and later if we find 
any eggs deposited, with a strong ley made of potash. One 
pound will make a gallon of wash, and this may be rubbed on to 
the tree with a brush or with any swab of cloth nailed or tied on 
toa handle. This ley, made strong, will destroy all vermin on 
the body of the tree, and all the moss that adheres to the bark, 


JUNE. 81 


rendering the whole of it fresh and of a fine green, healthy color. 
Some put on lime but we prefer ley, for that never injures the 
tree. Some have put on lime in summer and soon after have dis- 
covered the young wornis under the bark by their staining the 
lime, and have thus been led to trace them out. But ley will 
answer all purposes, and it can hardly be put on too strong, so 
as to injure the bark of the tree. It will destroy all living ani- 
mals as well as their eggs, that may be lodged there. 


CATERPILLARS. 


These worms are not so formidable as our more secret enemies; 
the eggs of the mother fly—a species of the butterfly—are de- 
posited on the limbs of the apple and the cherry tree, and are 
hatched in May. They live in colonies, and build nests with so 
close a webb as to shed off the rain, and early in the morning as 
well as at noon, in a hot day, all the tenants will be found in the 
nests; these are the times to attack them, and all may be de- 
stroyed with but little trouble. ‘The nests may be wound by 
hand around them, and all should be swept clean from the tree 
and crushed by the foot. When the nests are on high limbs a 
pole may be used with a swab on the end of it. This swab 
may be dipped in old, strong soap suds, and all the worms will 
die that come in contact with the suds. Some use turpentine in- 
stead of suds—and some a piked brush, which they worm into 
the nest und tear it in pieces, but many of the animals escape. 


eee 


WORMS IN PEACH TREES. 


We find many white worms with yellow heads, eating under 
ground into the roots and the bodies of peach trees. They seldom 
work above the surface, but where they eat the wood they cause the . 
gum to issue, and they ruin the tree when numbers of them are 
suffered to work unmolested. Some gardeners have dug them out 
with the point of a knife, but, in doing this, they injure the tree and 
let out gum wherever they cut. It would be better policy to de- 
stroy the eggs or nits that are placed by the fly at the root of the 
tree. This is often done accidentally, when ashes, or lime, or 
coal dust are placed about the tree. It is well known that these 
substances, as well as tan-bark, or auy thing that destroys vege- 
tation about the tree, have a tendency to destroy the vermin that 
are there deposited in the egg. These worms are believed to be 
produced in a manner similar to that of the apple tree borer, and, 
as they turn to flies, it is not worth our while to dig for them 


82 JUNE. 


while embedded in the roots of the tree. Their manners and 
habits require further examination, and we invite attention to the 
subjeet. 


TILLING. 


June is emphatically the tilage month, and most of the time 
of many farmers is employed with the horse plough, the cultiva- 
tor, and the hoe, in stirring the ground and destroying the weeds 
that claim fellowship with useful plants. It has been customary 
in New England to plough between the rows of corn, potatoes, 
and beans, three several times in the month, and to hoe by hand 
as often. The first hoeing is called weeding; the second half 
hilling; and the third hilling. And mould was drawn around 
the plants at each visit, so that by the time the hilling was fin- 
ished, all the loose dirt was gathered up in high piles or hills. 

A better practice is now prevalent of letting the roots choose 
their own depth in the soil, while we barely stir the ground and 
kill the weeds. We sometimes draw up a little earth to the hill 
at the first hoeing, because this is easier than to hoe away the 
weeds. If we first hoe away the soil we ought to supply its 
place again; but, by slightly covering the weeds in the hill, we 
kill them, and save the labor of one removal of earth. Weeds 
that are hoed up will often grow again, but weeds that are buried 
are smothered, and converted at once to manure for the growing 
plants. 


JULY. 


HAYING. 


We have now come to the busy month, the farmers hard 

month. ‘Toil, toil, toil, unceasing toil, until the hay and grain 
are secure. But though the labor is severe, the business is the 
neatest of any which the farmer engages in. More skill and 
management are required in a master hay maker than in a com- 
mon laborer. The scythe must be nicely hung and ground, and 
the whetstone must be handled as nicely as the feugler is re- 
quired to handle his arms; and, when the whole scythe is in 
good trim, it will perform nothing in unskilful hands—it must be 
nicely balanced and not allowed to cut up stones or capers of 
any kind. 

A master hay maker should be a tolerable weather-monger, 
and not mow two much just before a rain; and he must be able 
to decide at once when the hay is dry enough for the barn. He 
should know the time for cutting each field, and what should be 
put in heaps the first day. He should know how to labor and 
how to induce others to labor to the best advantage. 

The grass and hay crop of New England are of immense im- 
portance, and every facility for multiplying them should be 
sought with avidity. If by any means we can double the 
quantity of fodder for cattle we thereby have double means of 
increasing the manures in addition to the regular profits on the 
stock; anid when our lands are once rich enough we may raise 
grain on them at pleasure. But until we have made them more 
productive in hay and grass than they generally are, it is idle for 
us to attempt to raise large quantities of grain. 

Grass is most easily raised if we but adopt the proper methods, 
and grass and hay are the chief support of our stock. Grass 
properly cultivated will enrich our worn out soils, while large 
qantities of grain tend to impoverish them. While every farmer 
should endeavor to raise his own supplies of grain and vegeta- 
bles, as well as of meats and fuel, when he comes to this ques- 
tion—* What shall I raise to sell? What means shall I take to 
pay my help, and my interest, and my taxes ?”—we must con- 
sider whether it will answer his purpose to produce on his farm 
an article that will cost him more than he can obtain for it. 


84 JULY. 


MODES OF MAKING HAY. 


We have yet a number of philosophical writers who recom- 
mend drying hay in heaps in preference to spreading it ont in 
the sun. They contend, that in this mode they save all the 
leaves and preserve the hay of a fresh green color, and that it is 
richer than that which is more exposed to the sun, but we cannot 
consider that they have offered any thing like proof in support of 
their theory. ‘They have never shown that they have tested the 
comparative value of this hay. They only fancy it must be bet- 
ter because they save more of tae leaves and because the hay 
looks greener. 

In regard to clover we sometimes loose a portion of the leaves 
in curing the stalk, but if we are careful not to move it much 
when it is nearly dry we loose but a very small part. Then we 
should consider that the leaf is not one tenth of the whole clo- 
ver, and any measures taken to secure this small part, compared 
with the main body of the plant, that shall prove injurious to 
this, ought to be adopted with caution. 

It is yet to be proved, that the greener the appearance of the 
hay the better the cattle will like it, and we find, on trial, that 
cattle will eat with a better relish hay that has been well sunned 
aud sweetened in the sun, than tiat which has been cured or 
partially cured in the shade. When cut in good season the 
stems of the clover will all be eaten clean, though dried .n the 
sun, and this is quite as good evidence as any we have heard of, 
in favor of that which has been otherwise dried. 

Wet weather is injurious to all kinds of hay, after it is parti- 
ally dried, and clover is the worst kind of hay to be kept in the 
field in heaps, for it cannot be so cocked up as to shed rain like 
long or straight hay, and, therefore, the sooner it is dried the less 
danger from bad weather. We have been advised to let c!over 
stand in the cock for four or five days in order to cure it. Now 
we stand more than an even chance of having rain on it in this 
time, whereas, if we spread it out, we need not expose it more 
than two days. 

The test of the pudding is in the eating, and we see not why 
this should not be the test of the goodness of hay. Cattle will 
not eat hay that is not well cured when they can have that which 
was well dried in the sun, and they must be considered the best 
judges of its goodness. It may seem to some unnecessary to 
dwell so long on asubject like this, but it must be known that wri- 
ters are every year urging the advantages of drying clover in 
heaps instead of spreading it out to the sun. 


JULY. 85 


LATE CUTTING. 


Another notion, which most of us in New England must con- 
sider whimsical, is that which has been recommended in New 
York. It has often been repeated there, that herds grass should 
not be cut until the seeds were so ripe that they could be saved 
for sowing! We call this a Dutch whim, for on travelling 
through the Dutch country, more than thirty years ago, some 
Dutch landlords advised us to have their latest cut hay for our 
horse, and they wondered much at our predilection for early 
mown hay. In truth we could find none that had been early 
mown, and all their hay had the appearance of being dried while 
standing. Probably the reason why their horses did not let their 
masters know the difference was, that they had never known or 
tasted of any that had been cut in good season. 


THE PROPER TIME FOR CUTTING. 


We know of no better rule, after trying all methods, than to 
let the grass be full in the blossom before we cut it; then no 
matter how soon it is harvested. If we cut before this time we 
fail of getting the largest growth, and the largest weight. If we 
suffer it to stand until the seed is ripe our hay is much lighter 
and of poorer quality. We find this to be the case on actual 
trial, for we are often obliged to let our grass stand too long be- 
fore we cut it. 


CLOVER. 


The nothern red clover in rich ground, grows rank with large 
stems or butts, and this should be cut before it is fully grown, 
else the stems will be too coarse and tough for fodder, and it is 
liable to be lodged down and to have the lower parts rotten before 
mowing, unless we attend to itin season. On the other hand we 
have some grasses that seem not to be injured by long standing. 
The fowl meadow, first introduced by fowls into Dedham mea- 
' dows, may be cut in September if we like, and it makes most 
excellent fodder for stock. It is a common practice to let this 
stand until the seed is ripe and it is expected that the future 
growth will be dependent on the seeds scattered this season. 


COMMON MEADOW GRASSES. 


_In regard to the best time for cutting these there is much diver- 
sity of opinion. Formerly, the middle of September was thought 
8 


86 JULY. 


soon enough to finish off the meadows, and those in Middlesex 
County who were ready to attend the Concord Court, which, time 
out of mind, has sat on the second Monday of September, were 
thought to be quite early in finishing their haying by that time. 
But in modern times we finish our haying earlier—some in July, 
and most farmers by the tenth of August. 

We have in this gone from one extreme to another, and 
those who have meadows to cut have no necessity for doing up 
their hardest work in a single month. While it is at least doubt- 
ful whether our meadow grasses are better for our early cutting, 
we may rest at least a short time between English and meadow 
haying, and suffer other seed grasses to spread in consequence of 
late cutting. And we fancy we can see a marked difference in 
the quality of those meadows which have been suffered to stand 
until the ripening of the better seeds. 

But boys and young people are fond of finishing off their hay- 
ing at once in order to be indulged in the accustomed holidays 
of that season; and meadows are now cut one month sooner than 
in the last age, without any satisfactory evidence that the hay is 
better. In truth, the common meadows are growing more coarse, 
and the fowl meadow erass is fast quitting our premises. 


rd 


SECURING GRAIN. 


Winter rye is ripe enough to be cut, in common seasons, by 
the middle of July; and the harvesting of this grain formerly in- 
terfered with the hay harvest. But as the quantity of English 
‘hay, formerly cut in Massachusetts, bore no proportion to present 
harvests, the interference was not so great as might at first be 
supposed. Now we cultivate but little winter rye, and we raise 
ten fold more English hay than in the last age. 

Vast fields of rye were formerly harvested, year after year, on 
our easy plains; and, as long as they would bear the burthen, 
rye was sown annually, and no manure or green crop interve- 
ning, the ground was completely exhausted of all its geine, or 
vegetable matter, and many plains now lie—not monuments of 
mercy—but monuments of merciless cropping. Moss, thick 
moss, has taken the place of the grass crop, which always has 
a tendency to enrich, in consequence of its roots, which fill 
the ground and become food for other plants as soon as the plough 
is employed to turn the sod. 

It was the practice of our fathers to bind their rye in bundles, 
and stook or stock it in the field for a week or two, until a more 
leisure day permitted them to carry it to the barn, where it was 


immediately threshed, or stored until winter season. But, singe ~ 


we make more barn room, we are more in the habit of storing 
rye and other grain soon after it is cut. Spring rye, spring ° 


JULY. 87 


wheat, and oats are ripe two weeks later than the winter rye, and 
those farmers, who finish their haying in July, are not obliged to 
quit haying in order to attend to these harvests. 


OATS. 


This grain has formerly been raised in large quantities in 
Massachusetts, and the demand for it has been constant. It is a 
pretty business to handle it, as it is easily threshed and bears no 
beards that are offensive to the reaper. Its straw also makes 
good fodder for cattle, and as no nice cultivation is required for 
raising it, the cultivation is popular. But many are now begin- 
ning to notice that oats too, as well as rye, tend to reduce the 
soils in which they grow ; and particularly the sandy loams. 


WORMS IN GARDENS. 


At this season we have not much time to attend to the worms 
that attack our garden vegetables. Many of them continue their 
depredations through the month. The cut worm, that eats off 
plants and young trees just above the surface, is one of the most 
formidable. He is an ash-colored worm, with a black stripe on 
his back, and he buries himself under the surface in the day time, 
but in the night he comes out, cuts off his little tree, or his cab- 
bage, at the root of which he lays in the day time, and en- 
deavors to drag the top down into his hole, but for want of time 
or of strength he usually leaves it on the surface and buries him- 
self again before the gardener comes. He is easily found, close 
to the root of his tree, and he should never be allowed to cut 
down more than one. 

Nothing is more effectual to guard against the depredations 
of this worm than to cut him in two or to crush him between 
two stones, for treading on him does not answer any good pur- 
pose. Bugs may be sometimes driven from vines by sprinkling 
daily a little lime, or plaster, or ashes on them, but nothing 
can be relied on as effectual without daily attention; this is 
the price of our garden comforts, and of most of the happi- 
ness which we enjoy. 


INSECTS. 


We often hear large stories of large insects as far south as 
New Orleans, and have no doubt they are troublesome compan- 


88 JULY. 


ions, if their bills are half as large in proportion as those of our 
musquittoes ; but, one of the comforts of a northern clime con- 
sists in our exemption from such gentry for the most part of the 
year. A wag in New Orleans did not feel so angry at the bite 
of a musquitto as at his brageing so much about it. Horses and 
cattle feel the stings of insects so sensibly, that, when they have 
liberty, they take to flight, and often run into the bushes to 
sweep off the stinging herd. 

Insects are found to breed most plentifully in pools of stagnant 
water, and this should put us on our guard against building near 
pools that cannot be drained, and against suffering such pools to 
exist near our dwellings. They are always exceedingly un- 
wholesome in summer, and on that account also we should guard 
against them, drain them, or fill them up. 


PRI TSN FS OLY. 


The Enylish cherry begins to be ripe by the 20th of June, and 
the different varieties last through the month of July, and are 
quite an acquisition to our ancient list of fruits. ‘The blact- 
berry ripens in this month, and gives a-treat to children and to 
old people who have time to pick them. They grow spontane- 
ously about the walls and places where their vines can find sup- 
port and their roots rich pasture. 

The sweet whortleberry also makes its appearance in its black 
coat at this season, and is a universal favorite. It grows spon- 
taneously in neglected pastures, and is one of the most whole- 
some fruits of the season. Children could live many weeks on 
this food alone. The blueberry is akin to the last, and can 
hardly be distinguished from it when its outside coat is a little 
brushed. In taste and in appearance it seems the same berry. 
The high blueberry of the swamps is ripe in the last of this 
month, and the fruit and its appearance are much like the 
last. 

Currants of various kinds are in full splendor and use in this 
month, and remain good until September, though left on the 
bushes. Black mulberries are ripe also in July, and the fruit is 
rich and nourishing and wholesome. This tree is easily enough 
propagated, but we see but very few in the Commonwealth. We 
know of not more than three gardens in Framingham in which 
is a single mulberry tree. 

Button pears begin to look ripe in this month, and these and 
the Queen Catherine are sometimes plucked for market, but our 
best pears are later, and the St. Michael’s is not ripe until Octo- 
ber. Very few apples of northern growth are fit for eating be- 
fore August; but we have enumerated enough for one month. 

The labor of getting hay is so arduous and the weather so 


JULY. 89 


warm, the good wife and the girls should gather these fruits as 
they ripen and furnish a part for the desert of the laborers. The 
currant should be sweetened with sugar or honey, and the cherry 
should be made into puddings—all the other fruits named may 
be eaten without cooking, and yet a blackberry pie and a whor- 
PSoeas pudding, will sustain the laborers longer than the raw 
ruit. 

It is a charming prospect, a sight worth seeing—a dozen hun- 
gry laborers, devouring with admirable appetite and assiduity, 
the repast prepared by feminine neatness and skill, for those who 
delight in the more arduous exercises of the hay field, and have 
a keen relish for all the fat things of the land. Females should 
not be visiting more than half the time in this month, and as 
they are not called now into the hay field, they should endeavor 
- lighten the trials of the males, by performing the chores about 
home. 


&* 


AUGUST. 


FARMERS’ WORK FOR AUGUST. 


WE finish our haying this month and have time besides to 
look about us and make improvements on our lands. If we have 
not labored too hard to secure our main harvest—the fodder for 
the winter—we become recruited in a few days after haying is 
over, and feel more able than ever to engage in active business. 
So true it is that regular labor renders us strong. 

The man who has lain idle through the winter months has 
but little strengh or resolution to engage in active business in 
the spring, and he would do better if employed at small profit 
through the winter, to keep his hand at it than to suspend. 


LOW LAND. 


Most farmers have lands that are low and wet for a large por- 
tion of the year. ‘hese may often be improved in August or 
in September to very good advantage. Some we prepare by 
burning the surface sods—some by digging and turning the soil 
topsy turvy, and carrying on, in the wheelbarrow, gravel or Joam 
and compost manures. And some we can subvert more easily by 
using the plough. 

We have strangely neglected our low lands in New England. 
Once they were the only lands that we relied on for grass; but this 
was of a coarse quality and grew up spontaneously in the newly 
cleared meadows, which we had rendered productive by flooding 
the growth of wood, and killing it in that manner, or by cutting it 
off while green. 

Many of these meadows, that have been thus cleared for one 
hundred and fifty years, now produce a good burthen of coarse 
grass; but these lie where the water annually overflows them, 
for no lands will continue to produce well so Jong, unless they 
are alded by some means or other. But within a few years we 
have greatly increased our harvests of good English grass upon 
the highlands, and we have in proportion neglected our mead- 
ows. 


AUGUST. 91 


IMPROVEMENT OF LOW LANDS. 


Within twenty years we have found, that by proper processes 
we can introduce the best kinds of hay into meadows, that for a 
long time have been worthless. These meadows lie in general 
where the waters do not flow them sufficiently to produce the 
common meadow grasses, and the mosses, the cranberry vines, 
and the low blueberry bushes have been the chief productions. 
The hardhack and the skunk cabbage would often rear their 
heads when there was room for them, but these were not found 
to improve the quality of the burthen. 

Many of these meadows can be easily drained, and whenever 
that is the case, there is no great difficulty in subduing them, 
for a great proportion of such land can soon be made _ hard 
enough to bear a team. We have in Middlesex and Norfolk 
counties thousands of acres of such lands, which have good peat 
bottoms, and, when this is the case, they are worth as much for 
grass as any prairie lands of the Western States. Let us not be 
deceived in this matter; but a small proportion of the best 
Western lands will bear good English hay for any length of 
time without cultivation. The prairie lands of Illinois, though ex- 
cellent for corn and for grain, will not bear so large burthens of 
English hay as our Northern lands will, and the coarse fodder 
which they naturally produce, will not fatten animals better than 
much of our common meadow hay. 

Travellers tell us that the red clover has not been introduced 
there yet, and that the herds grass does not yield by far so large 
a harvest as in Massachusetts. And though large herds may 
now be kept, since there are no fences and they have a great 
range, and need not much care in winter, yet, when the farmer 
reckons by the acre, his grass crops are far less than in Massa- 
chusetts. 

When, therefore, the northern farmer takes into consideration 
our superior markets, and considers that hay will bring much 
more here than it can for forty years to come in Illinois, which 
can rival him only in the sale of grain, that one of the hardest 
modes of making money from a farm is by the grain crop, he 
may be inclined to look about him and determine whether he 
should not rather take up some of our best grass lands, that have 
been wholly neglected here, in preference to going a thousand 
miles for those that will never yield so great profits. 

- We have lands enough in New England to support four times 
the population which they now support. Farming lands are not 
held much higher than they were thirty years ago, and if money 
can be made any where by farming, it must be made where there 
are good markets near by. We must also count up all the cost 
of emigration—the sickness to which we always expose our- 
selves in new countries—the thousand points of untried being to 


92 AUGUST. 


which we are exposed, and we shall hesitate long ere we take so 
long a leap in the dark as one thousand miles. 

Should we be asked whether we would have no emigration to 
the west, we say let no man make a desperate move; let pio- 
neers who are habituated to new countries make the forward 
move, and let our settlements, that. are left vacant be filled up 
gradually—let all changes be gradual. We are pushing onwards 
and into the woods too fast—we are building up cities faster than 
we can find people to fill them—we are hastily and unnecessarily 
driving out from before us the aboriginal settlers, and making 
them cross the big river to take up new lands, which we shall 
let them keep until we want them—and we are abandoning older 
settlements to which we have some claim of right. We would 
not encourage emigration, for we are persuaded there is already 
too much of it, and that our people ‘can live better here for fifty 
years to come than they can in the Western States. 


THE MOST IMPROVED MODES OF BRINGING LOW 
LANDS INTO ENGLISH GRASS. 


The first move is to drain off all the surplus waters, and these 
should be drawn down a foot or more below the surface of the 
meadow. If the meadow is quite wet it is sometimes necessary 
to cut what are called marginal ditches, in addition to the princi- 
pal centre ditch ; for we find that the largest springs often flow 
in from the sides of the meadow. ‘There is one inconvenience 
in cutting these side ditches, unless we leave a core or a bank 
uncut, that we may pass on to the meadow with a team; and 
this we may generally do without inconvenience, for these mead- 
ows are always so level, the water will flow either way and meet 
the cross ditches. 

Another rule worth observing, is to cut the principal, or all the 
ditches, nearly parallel with each other. This not only makes it 
more easy to mow and to rake the field, but we must bear in 
mind, that one branch of our improvements is to fix these peat 
meadows so that they may be ploughed once in a few years. 

All English mowing wants to be occasionally renovated. 
These low lands, with a little top dressing, will hold good as long 
as any ; but these will not always yield well without more attention. 
After they have been mown a number of years, the top dressings 
are not so useful as when the lands have lain but a short time. 
The salts cannot penetrate the soil so readily, and we loose more 
from evaporation than we do at the first top dressing. Ina few 
years too we find the sour and wild grasses will creep in, and we 
find it a good practice occasionally to turn the whole surface soil 


the other side up. 


AUGUST. 93 


This serves to mix in the gravel and the loam that was first 
carried on, and brings up and exposes new matter to the sun, and 
in a situation where it can be mixed with the new compost or 
gravel, which we generally carry on when we plough anew. By 
this process also we turn under the whole rowen crop, wild grass, 
and all, and make it manure at once, and thus we should repeat 
the ploughings as often as may be necessary. 

When our ditches are thus dug, and we have drained off the 
water, we proceed to fit the soil for grass seed, and this we do in 
different modes, according to the quality, &c., of the surface 
inatter. 


PARING AND BURNING. 


We use this process when the meadow is of a dry nature and 
the surface consists of coarse roots and cranberry vines, that can 
be easily burned. When the meadow is hard enough to bear a 
team, we can use a paring plough on first subduing it. This 
plough merely cuts the turf, as a common share would, and slices 
it in the same way as a common coulter, or cutter, and does not 
turn the sod over but lets it lie precisely as it was found; for the 
paring plough has no mould board, and is intended to do nothing 
but to cut the sods. Its share is broader than that of a common 
plough, and it extends out right and left of the cutter, so as to 
take a breadth of thirteen or fourteen inches. 

When one of these paring ploughs is in good order one yoke 
of oxen will draw it with ease, so that hassocks, which cannot be 
turned with a common plough and six oxen, are readily cut and 
are turned over with the hoe. If the ground will not bear a team 
we turn over these turfs with sharp bog hoes, or hand hoes, and 
let them dry a few days, then set fire to them. 

We have sometimes known a field burnt in a very few days 
after it was turned up, and without piling up a single sod to be 
dried. When this can be done it is a very cheap mode of bring- 
ing a cranberry meadow into English grass, for we have nothing 
to do after burning but to sow our seed and to rake or harrow it 
in; we have not even the ashes to spread, for they lie already 
where they should, and we need no manure or top dressing, with 
gravel or loam, for two or three years; the ashes proving sufficient 
for that term. 

The soil of these meadows is now growing harder and harder 
as the English grass roots extend, and if we wish to carry on gra- 
vel or other matter from the side banks, we can often do it in 
August; but some carry on this matter in winter, when they can 
do nothing else, digging out of a pit that stands where it will 
freeze but little, and carting it over the frozen meadow. Some 
have carried on gravel enough to cover up all the growing grass 


94 AUGUST. 


and vines, laying it five inches thick, but this is a great and un- 
necessary expense, and is never practised where we have pared 
and burned, or where we merely wish to renovate meadows that 
have been before brought into English grass. 

Another mode of burning the turfs after they have been pared 
and sliced up, is to pile them in heaps and leave a hollow in the 
heap for a kind of chimney through which the air may pass. 
Sometimes the sods will be half burned before we pile them, and 
by piling in the most careless manner we can reduce the whole toa 
heap of ashes. When we are hindered by bad weather and fear 
we shall not finish burning all the sods in season for sowing, we 
pile up in close and high heaps all that are unburned, spread the 
ashes that are made over the ground, sow our grass seed, and let 
the tall piles stand until another summer. ‘Then, after haying, 
touch fire to them in a dry day, and they will very frequently be 
turned to peat ashes, the best kind of manure for these meadows, 
in a few days. 

Spread these heaps of ashes evenly over the meadow, which 
has now a second dressing, and sow hay seed where the heaps 
stood and your whole meadow will now be a smooth and beauti- 
ful hay field, yielding more than any of your high lands that have 
been manured and tilled for fifty years past. 


TURNING MEADOW TO ENGLISH. 


Another mode of subduing peat bogs and cranberry meadaws, 
is to turn the sod over flat with a plough or with bog-hoes—cart 
on gravel or loam and spread evenly over the meadow—then 
spread on compost manures and sow the grass seeds. It will be 
perceived, that in this mode we are at all the expense of carting 
and spreading both gravel and manure, and in addition to the 
expense of the mode last described, we must count the cost of 
the manure which we did not need in the paring and burning 
process. 

When the gravel pit is nigh and the carting good, it is not 
expensive carrying on gravel enough to answer all purposes, for 
we would not allow any one to carry on gravel five inches thick 
if he would do it for us for nothing. A little gravel is excellent 
to mix with the peat muck, and is more warming than common 
loam, which some prefer, but on no account should the peat muck 
be buried deep by mere gravel, which in itself is not more nutri- 
cious than sand, We want a proper mixture, that is all. 


AUGUST. 95 


ANOTHER MODE OF GETTING ENGLISH HAY FROM 
MEADOW. 


Many meadows which once produced large burthens in Mid- 
dlesex County, now bear but little, either because they have been 
managed improperly in regard to mowing too soon and thus was 
‘esr a the going to seed of the best grasses—or, what is more 
ikely, draining the meadows of their natural waters and rendering 
them too dry for the purpose for which nature intended them ; for, 
as we have already observed, there are meadows now which yield 
bountifully, though they have been mowed for more than a hun- 
dred and fifty years, and have had no other dressing than that 
which they obtained from the common brooks. 

The meadows which have now ceased to yield as formerly, 
have been ditched, in some instances, in the hope of improving 
the quality, at least, if not the quantity of the grass; but this is 
an erroneous mode of improving meadows, and we never knew 
one to be benefited by this process. It makes neither English . 
nor meadow of them, but is likely to turn them to brush-groves. 
When these meadows or any other which produce none but poor 
grass, lie in such a situation that gravel or loam can be handily 
carried on to them, the cost is not great of making them into 
complete English mowing. 

We frequently find meadows of this description with a high 
bank of gravel, sand, or loam running parallel with them. This 
high bank is often barren, being too high and too dry for any 
kind of production, while the adjoining meadow is too low for 
English grass and too high for a good burthen of meadow grass. 
Such soils may be generally united to the mutual benefit of each; 
and, when the match is not a happy one, it may be because Prov- 
idence has otherwise determined. 

One question is, how is this union to be effected ? Another is, 
what is the cost ? 

When the meadow is not broad, and the knoll of gravel, &c. 
lies nigh, one man, with a yoke of oxen, or with a horse and cart, 
will carry on enough in one week in August, to cover up com- 
pletely all the grass on an acre. The cost of this does not ex- 
ceed twelve dollars. Thus we have made an acre of poor mead- 
ow into highland for a small sum. But what will it produce? 
This is an important question and shall be answered. If you 
will carry on halfas much manure as you put annually to an acre 
of corn, and spread it and harrow it in with the hay seed, you 
will have two tons of hay to the acre for several years in succes- 
sion; and when it degenerates, you may add a little manure mixed 
with gravel, &c., or you may now plough your meadow almost 
as well as you can upland—turn down the rowen grass, and turn up 
to the sun the rich meadow mud, on which you may put your com- 
post and seed anew. 


96 AUGUST. 


In this process, it may be noted, we avoid mowing the meadow 
grass, on the summer of our first covering it with gravel, &c., 
and thus we need less gravel; and we readily convert to active 
manure the summer’s growth of meadow grass which we found 
on the land. We have tried this process and personally know 
the result. This is the second season of mowing a field which 
we have, in this manner, converted into English mowing, and we 
know the actual cost. We used from twelve to fifteen loads of 
fine manure to the acre only, and the grass is the best we have 
on fifty acres of highland mowing. 


ON SAVING SEEDS. 


We loose immensely by not taking care in season to save the 
best seeds for spring sowing. In the multitude of our cares we for- 
get, and need often to be reminded, of the proper times and modes 
of preserving what we have grown in our gardens and in our fields. 
We need a faithful sentinel, whose business it shall be, like the 
preacher’s, to remind us often of our duty; and if he tells noth- 
ing new—if he shows us nothing which we have not-seen before, 
—he may still be more useful than one who is always leading us 
into new schemes, and urging us to adopt his theories which he 
has reduced to practice. 

In general, peas, beans, and other vegetables, that grow in 
pods, should be preserved for seed in those pods until the time 
for sowing. Melons of all kinds—-pumpkins, squashes, cucum- 
bers, &c. should have their seeds taken from the shell and 
washed—then they should be laid up in a dry place secure from 
mice, &c. 


SEPTEMBER. 


—_———= 


T'a1s is a more leisure month for the farmer than he usually 
finds in the summer season in this country—and this leisure 
should be improved in making the farm better. August and 
September are the months when we can best work on low lands. 
They cannot be meddled with in spring, and if we attempt to 
seed them, we never lay them smooth as we may in the last of 
August. 


FALL SEEDING. 


In the last month we have shown the several modes which are 
practised to subdue peat and bog meadows, and bring them into 
English grass, and we wish in this month to remind the readers 
of our last year’s Almanac that the last week of August and the 
first week of September are found by experience to be the best 
season for the fall sowing of grass seeds. 

It has latterly become more customary to sow in Autumn, than 
when we raised more grain, but still the great majority of farmers 
sow their grass seeds in the Spring. ‘They usually find this the 
most convenient time, and they save labor by sowing it with their 
spring grain. On many fields this answers well where there is 
not much risk of the taking of the seed. But in a great propor- 
tion of onr light lands the old English rule of sowing all the grass 
seed in Spring is found not to answer a good purpose—it is often 
summer killed as soon as the grain which was sowed with it is 
reaped, and we are trying different methods for seeding our lands 
to grass. 

As grain is not the leading object in Massachusetts—as the 
hay harvest is more profitable, at least in our vicinity, than the 
grain harvest—as we have not, for years, been able to supply our 
own State with hay, but import the article by water—we are re- 
solving, if we buy either, to buy a part of our grain instead of 
buying hay—and in some cases, we entirely neglect tosow grain 
in the spring, when we have land that has been fitted for grass 
by previous tillage—we let it rest until August and then sow 
grass seed alone. On land that has been tilled, if we sow grass 
seed alone in the Spring, we have a crop of large weeds the first 
year, and their stubble and their stumps the second; but by sow- 


98 SEPTEMBER. 


ing about the last of August, if the weeds come up with the 
grass they are soon killed by the frost, and leave the grass in 
possession of the whole soil. Thus we get better grass and 
spare our fields the exhaustion which a rye or oat crop would oc- 
casion. 


———r 


SEEDING GRASS SEED ON GREEN SWARD. 


But we go farther to give a preference to the grass over the 
grain harvest. When our grass fields are run out and refuse to 
return us a handsome yield, we are in a way of ploughing them 
in Autumn and seeding down again directly without planting. 
Jn this way we save exhausting the land by grain raising, and we 
fertilize it by turning in a green crop in the last of August, 
when there is always something on the land to be turned in. 

By taking this course we are enabled to give each field manure, 
as it does not require half the quantity when managed in this way 
that it does when planted, and then sown with grain. And we 
are persuaded that this is the most economical mode of bringing 
our soil back again to its former fertility. We have raised grain 
on our easy lands from year to year until many will not now pay 
for tilling, and we are letting them lie barren. It is much better 
to keep them in grass. 

This mode of turning grass land again to grass land without 
planting, is particularly applicable to low grounds that are too 
wet for planting. These generally yield the largest crops of 
grass for the scythe when we pay proper attention to them, but 
we are not fond of touching them while we have more of easy 
tillage ground, and they have been allowed to lie half a cen- 
tury without producing enough to pay the fencing. We should 
plough such lands nicely and lay the furrows flat; then roll them, 
put on some rotted manure, and sow hay seed; first harrowing 
thoroughly lengthwise so as not to tear up the furrows. 


CORN STALKS. 


Writers have discussed the subject of corn stalk cutting very 
fully, and they are not yet quite agreed as to the best mode of 
proceeding. The old fashion of cutting stalks, or topping them 
from about. the first to the fifteenth of September is strongly con- 
demned, but some will still cut them early, so that the sun may ~ 
shed his influence more equally on the corn, and ripen it early ; 
while others insist it is better to let the top remain on and clabo- 
rate and perfect the juices that circulate through the arteries and 
veins. 

From some quite accurate experiments that have been made, 


SEPTEMBER. 99 


there can be no doubt we injure corn materially by cutting the 
tops early. We stop the growth, and check the circulation of 
the sap which is needed to mature the plant, and it is not per- 
ceived that we hasten much the maturity of it. 


———. 


SHOCKING THE WHOLE CORN. 


The most modern mode of harvesting corn has many admirers 
who are always pleased with something new, and we cannot say 
it is not the best practice; we have tried it on a large field, and 
our corn ripened well, quite as well as ever, and we are inclined 
to think the stalks and husks are more valuable when cured in 
the new way. The plan is to let the whole stalk stand until the 
corn is nearly ripe, or until it is feared a frost will take it; then 
cut the whole close tothe ground, and make pikes, somewhat like 
the pikes of the single stalks, by placing the stalks of about 
twenty hills around one that is left standing in the midst. 

Withes or stalks are used to tie the whole securely, and they 
are allowed to stand here two or three weeks. It is thought by 
many that the «orn gains considerably in this shock, and that it 
ripens faster tuan in the open rows. It is more secure from 
frosts as they operate not on a dry stalk, and all the outside 
stalks that are exposed to frost are soon dry, and thus escape, 
while the inside ones are protected by them. More experiments 
must be made before we can accurately determine whether the 
corn by this protecting system gains in weight. The labor is no 
greater, if we become used to this mode, than in the old way of 
topping the stalks before cutting the corn. 


GRAPES AN ee 


These fruits are in perfection in these months, and some of 
our native white grapes are quite ripe in August. The Isabella 
grape has been much lauded in the United States, but it has not 
that intrinsic value which it has been represented to have, nor 
can it be cultivated in open grounds, as we were taught to be- 
lieve, nor will it often ripen in our gardens, unless it is guarded 
in some niche, and protected from ‘the cold. In truth we have 
been greatly cheated by the introduction of it, and we must be 
more cautious of imposition in future. 

We have great varieties of native grapes in our woods, Sid 
they need only to be introduced, in order to command good 
prices. They need no protection, and only desire something to 
lean on when they are laden with fruit. There are the white or 
cream color grapes which have more sweetness than the Isabella, 


100 SEPTEMBER. 


and which ripen one whole month sooner. Grapes are beyond 
question, the easiest fruits we raise, and we have only to select 
from our forests, and give them a corner in our gardens. 


POTATOES. 


People commence digging potatoes during this month, and 
early ones may al] be put up before the month is out; but there 
is danger of their heating, if they are packed in large piles in 
hot weather. Potatoes should be fully ripe before they are dug, 
and particularly, the Jong red and other late potatoes. We have 
known potatoes to heat so much when put in a cellar in Septem- 
ber, as to make it necessary to take them out again. 

Hoes, or pronged potato diggers are commonly used to get the 
potatoes out of the ground; but the labor is heavy, as the ground 
has commonly become hard at this season, and will not yield 
readily to the hoe. A plough of a new construction has lately 
been invented, which we are inclined to think will save much la- 
bor. It is somewhat in the form of a horse plough, but the cou!- 
ter is made so rounding that it will not cut the potatoes, and t» 
keep it in the ground and force it to run under the potatoes, the 
coulter inclines back at the top much more than a common coul- 
ter, and a double mould plate turns the potatoes out each way, 
or on each side of the plough. 

When the potatoes are thus turned up, it is an easy matter 
with the prong hoe to pull them from the dirt, and all the hard 
digging will come upon the horse. Potatoes are far more lia- 
ble to suffer with drought than corn is, and when they have been 
hilled up high, they turn off the rain instead of admitting it to 
their roots. We ought therefore, to plant them level with the 
surface, and hill up but little. 


TURNIPS. 


We now have a variety of these, and we cultivate and harvest 
them in different modes. We commonly sow the ruta baga, or 
yellow turnip in drills in June, and we let them stand in the 
ground until October. At that time, we either cnt the tops 
while the turnip remains in the ground, and give them to the 
cattle, or we pull them up, and sever the tops afterwards. We 
have found it easier to cut the tops while the turnips were in the 
ground—then with a dung fork dig the roots, and throw them in 
piles, whence they are tossed into the cart. 


OCTOBER. 


OcToBER is a busy month, for we can do but little of our har- 
vesting before it commences. Potatoes are generally better 
when lying in the ground until this month than when dug early. 
And corn stands safer in the field until the commencement of 
this month, than in the corn barn, provided always we have good 
fences. 

Corn and potatoes, both unknown in Europe, until Columbus 
made the discovery of the new world, are now among the most 
important harvests of New England. In the middle and western 
States, wheat is the leading article, and that has been grown in 
all climes from the earliest ages. 


oe 


CORN HARVEST. 


In Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas, corn has been a fa- 
vorite crop, but since the introduction of cotton, the Carolinas’ 
have turned attention more to that article, and on some planta- 
tions it is the practice to purchase most of their corn from places 
where cotton cannot be raised. The low price of cotton ‘will 
now induce these States to depend on their own fields for the 
staff of life. 

In some of the southern States, and in most of the western, it 
is common to let the cattle into the cornfields to fatten on the 
standing ears and husks, and to let the hogs come and pick up 
what the cattle have left on the ground; and where corn is not 
worth more than twentyfive cents per bushel, this may be the 
better mode of harvesting it; but we expect at the north, seventy 
to ninety cents per bushel, and we feed our cattle in the barn or 
in fields separate from the corn. 

In Virginia, and farther south, a tall kind of corn is raised, and 
the planters put the rows five feet asunder, leaving only two or 
three stalks in a row. One would suppose a more northern kind 
would produce better, and injure their lands less. It is certain 
we obtain larger harvests than they, but most of their planters 
have been in the habit of using but very little manure. 

g* 


102 OCTOBER. 


MODE OF HARVESTING IN VIRGINIA, AND SOUTH 
OF HER. 


A very common practice is to gather the ears from the corn 
stalks, and to let them stand for the cattle to pluck. They thus 
get some fall and winter feed, but the standing stalks are a great 
nuisance in the field as they obstruct the plough in the following 
season. Besides, all these butts are wanted to be converted into 
manure, and when properly taken care of the butts are good 
fodder. 

If the planters of the southern states would bring back their 
paternal fields to their pristine fertility they should keep more 
stock through the winter— keep it shut up and let it increase 
their manures, and then they would see the value of their corn 
stalks. By letting this stock have half the plantation to graze 
on in summer the owner might hope to improve the remainder to 
much greater advantage than they now do the whole. And if 
in addition to this they would let one half of the plough fields lie 
one year without cropping, turning in with the plough two or 
three green crops in a season, they might hope to get something 
in their fields that should be worth harvesting. 


TOBACCO RATSING. 


A part of Virginia, ever since the first settlement of the coun- 
try, has been devoted to the culture of tobacco. This is a poi- 
sonous plant, and if no great exhauster of the soil, it never aids 
in the increase of manures, either directly by the litter and waste, 
or by feeding the stock of the plantation.. In this respect it is 
worse than cotton, for that is not poisonous, and the litter and 
waste may be made to count in the manure heap. This weed is 
therefore a nuisance on the farm, and in the cottage or palace, 
and probably has been as detrimental, since the discovery of it, 
as the potato has been useful. 


FENCING, 


In most of the southern States there is experienced a want of 
material for fencing the lands that le along the sea-coast. 
There are no rocks, and in many places timber has become 
scarce. The Virginians have been noted for their crooked, or 
worm fences, made of large rails interlocked, and without posts. 
Probably with a little care, live fences might be made to take the 
place of these rails, and trees might be set near enough together 
to be lopped, and form a fence. 


OCTOBER. 103 


But a better mode would be to plant trees twelve feet apart in 
the line of the fence, and when they became large enough, let 
the rails be fastened to the trees, or interwoven in the branches 
and sprouts. ‘There are various kinds of trees of rapid growth, 
and among them the apple tree would not prove a nuisance in 
any respect, but in a few years would be sufficient to support the 
rails. 


——— 


STONE WALLS. 


Where rocks are plenty, they are undoubtedly the best mate- 
rial for forming a fence, and after they have been dug from the 
ground, the expense of placing them in a single, or balance wall, 
is not great. This is the best kind of wall; it is easiest built, 
and will stand much longer than a double wall, and any farm 
well fenced with wall ought to be valued much higher than one 
that is fenced with other materials. 


———— 


DIGGING ROCKS. 


In September and October we have sometimes leisure for dig- 
ging rocks from the pasture and mowing grounds. ‘Two men 
with bars will turn out many in a day, when the rocks are sizea- 
ble, but when large, more help is wanted. <A yoke of oxen in 
such case is worth more than aman. As soon as the rock is 
fairly loosened by the bars, the oxen will cant one out, of three 
tons weight, quicker than half a dozen men. 


——— 


INDIAN CORN. 


We have now a great variety of this excellent grain, some 
ripening early and some later. We have some’that is suitable 
for all the latitudes of the United States. Maine has her corn 
that comes to maturity in ninety days from planting, and Louisi- 
ana has a kind that requires six months of hot weather, and in 
that State there is enough of this and to spare. 

For the northern States we ought to select the earliest kinds 
that will ripen before the frost comes, and we think the southern 
planters would do better, if they occasionally obtained their seed 
from the north. We certainly obtain more bushels on the acre 
than they do, and our stalks being less, they afford better stover 
for cattle, and they exhaust the ground less. In some parts of 
Virginia, they have introduced more northern seed than. that 
formerly preferred by them, and instead of the long horse-tooth 
corn which was the only kind sent thence to our market, we now 


104 OCTOBER. 


see a mixed or medium kind, which is more valuable, and is bet- 
ter esteemed by northern consumers. 

As we have occasionally a cold season, in which much corn 

fails of maturity in the fields, itis an object to select not only 
such kinds as produce abundantly, but also such as come to ma- 
turity early in the season. And of the early kinds we find there 
are some that produce much more than others. We sometimes 
obtain from the Canadas, small eared corn with small kernels ; 
this is two or three weeks earlier than our native kinds, but it is 
not sufficiently productive ; it seldom yields more than twenty 
bushels to the acre, and as it requires quite as much attention as 
any kind of corn, we are scarcely repaid for our labor of produc- 
tion. , 
But we have other kinds which are obtained in New Hamp- 
shire, that are as early, and are twice as large in the ear and in 
the kernel. In selecting seed we should see that the kernel is 
large, and particularly that it is deep; and it should grow on a 
small cob, for we find these cobs are sooner dried, and are less 
hable to mould, than large ones: and we should select those ears 
for seed that were well filled out at the ends, and when we have 
once purchased a kind that suits us, we should be cautious not 
to let it deteriorate, but select the earliest and the best ears from 
the field. 


———— 


WINTER WHEAT AND WINTER RYE. 


It is not so common now as formerly, to cultivate winter grain. 
Much reliance was once placed on this, and as it ripened earlier 
by two weeks than that which was sown in spring, it often es- 
caped the most sultry turn of weather which is apt to affect this 
grain at the time of filling up. Butthe grain worms and the flies 
have made such havoc with wheat, that farmers have inclined to 
sow at different times, so as to balk the destroyer either by earli- 
er or later sowing, according to circumstances. 

Grain whichis sown in autumn, is thought to produce a more 
certain harvest when it is seeded by the first of September, and 
some have sown their next year’s rye and wheat as early as Au- 
gust. Some, on the other hand, have had good harvests when 
they sowed just before winter, and the seed had no opportunity 
to vegetate before spring. Some farmers sow as early in spring 
as the earth will permit, and others sow as late as June, and in 
that way have cheated the insects that prey upon it, and many 
sow their winter grain in October, either on their potato ground, 
or on that which bore corn. We cannot tell which of these 
modes is best, until we can determine with more certainty what 
the weather of the ensuing season is to be. 


OCTOBER. 105 


FALL FEEDING. 


Cattle in New England usually get their own food through the 
month of October, but when the season is very dry, we some- 
times feed them with the toppings of the corn, and in some cases 
we have given them hay. We have known the seasons so fa- 
vorable that cattle would take good care of themselves through- 
out November, and this reduces our winter or feeding months to 
five months and a half, down to the middle of May; but we are 
more often obliged to overrun six months, than to fall short of 
that term. 

At. the south, the winters are so mild that very little fodder is 
provided for neat cattle, and where that is the case, they are al- 
ways poor in the spring. 

In the District of Columbia, the cattle look in spring, as if 
they had taken the whole care of themselves during winter. 
Whether this was always the case, or whether the owners have 
caught the idea from certain legislators who think the people 
must take care of themselves, and not look to their masters for 
assistance, we are unable to say—but we would go almost any- 
where as soon as to Washington, to study either political wis- 
dom, or the science of agricultuze. 


os 


ILLINOIS PRAIRIES. 


In some parts of the State cattle live through the winter on 
the prairie grass which in some locations grows large. and rank, 
so as to peep out above ‘the snows that lie here for a short time 
only. This is a very coarse kind of fodder and will barely give 
an animal a living. It is not much better than our coarse mead- 
ow hay, and therefore animals cannot fatten on it. But in sum- 
mer, cattle obtain a good living, for they feed on higher grounds, 
and where the grass is shorter and sweeter. 

‘These prairies are extensive openings of great extent, and al- 
most a levei surface. In some parts, however, bog holes and 
ridges, or rollings, intervene, and render the passing difficult. 
One of these plains is not less than one hundred miles in length, 
and so firm is the sward, before it has been ploughed, that horses 
and carriages pass on it without difficulty in the month of April. 
A gentleman crossed the State of Illinois from the city of St. 
Louis, in Missouri, to the Wabash river in Indiana, a few years 
ago, in a four wheel carriage, and he found the travelling on the 
prairies good in the month of April. 


106 OCTOBER 


CANKER WORMS. 


These worms have become very troublesome again on our 
trees, and particularly on our apple trees. 


Description of Plate. 

1, canker worm’s eggs; 2, a full grown worm; 3, chrysalis; 

4, female; 5, male; 6, male, with its wings spread—at the right 
hand, the section of a tree with a trough upon it. 


This plate represents them in the different stages of their 
growth. It was formerly understood that the grubs never as- 
cended the tree in autumn. But it is now known that some of 
them begin to ascend at least as early as October. 

The most effectual, and the cheapest mode of destroying them 
is to encircle the tree with a lead gutter filled with fish oil. The 
gutter is so formed as to make a roof that sheds off the rain. 
The space between the gutter and the tree may be filled with 
seaweed, or with straw, and as the tree enlarges, this wadding 
may be reduced. 

The usual mode of preventing the ascent of the worms has 
been to put tar around the body of the tree ; and it was necessa- 
ry to make a new application of the tar daily, or it would become 
so dry as to admit of the grubs crawling over it. 


NAVIGABLE WATERS OF ILLINOIS. 


This is a flat country, and all its large streams are navigable. 
The State is supposed to have near four thousand miles of navi- 
gable water on its different sides. The great Mississippi forms 
its western boundary, the lower part of the Ohio is its southern 
boundary, and the great Wabash divides it from the state of 
Indiana on the east; while it claims a right on the north to the 
navigation of Lake Michigan, whose waters mingle on a level 
with those of Lake Erie, and float down vessels without obstrue- 


OCTOBER. 107 


tion to the city of Buffalo, the head of the Great Canal of New 
York. 

The route is now circuitous from Buffalo to Chicago, as the 
whole of the state of Michigan must be circumnavigated before 
we reach that place; yet a vessel lately performed the voyage in 
four days! 

From Buffalo, therefore, by help of steam, we can sail direct 
to Illinois in four days, and when our railroad shall be completed 
to Albany next season, we may be able by the aid of rail road 
assistance between Albany and Buffalo, to reach that place in 
less than three days—making the whole a journey of seven days 
to the far famed Illinois. 


LAKE ERIE. 


This lake is called the Mediterranean of North America, and 
its importance to commerce will be learned, as our country be- 
comes settled, and as trade increases. Already has a great city, 
Buffalo, sprung up within the short term of twentyfive years, at 
the hither end of this important lake. Cleaveland, another city 
in Ohio, rears its head at the north end of the Ohio Canal, and 
ina few years we may expect the whole coast to be lined with 
cities, towns, villas and quays for the convenience of those who 
do business on the waters. 


We have not much time to plough or to dig rocks in October, 
our whole time is needed for our harvesting ; but we have found 
this the best month to prepare our land for a next year potato 
crop. When we have green sward that we intend for potatoes, 
we find it better to turn in a good coat of grass on it about the 
middle of the month, than to let the cattle feed it. In this way 
we prepare a most mellow bed for the potatoes, and they are able 
to make room for themselves among the rotting matter. We do 
not cross plough it in the spring—we find the harrow sufficient, 
and it is all important to keep the green sward down. Itisa 
general rule, when we can plough completely the first time, not 
to plough up the sward again until we have taken several crops. 


NOVEMBER. 


As October has required all our attention and was not quite 
long enough for finishing our harvesting, we must borrow a little 
of November, although we may freeze our fingers in the act. 
The crops that were not housed must now be attended to, and, 
as the days are short, we must pay our hired help less, or they 
must work in the evenings. 

The harvesting of corn is pretty work, and much of it may be 
done by moonlight ; or incold weather, by candle light. When 
placed in a convenient floor way, a number of hands will sit very 
happily for three hours inan evening, and seperate the corn from 
the husks ; and all the old and new anecdotes may be passed from 
one to the other with as much glee as the cits enjoy on holidays, 
in repeating their toasts, and cracking their jests, and their bot- 
tles of champaigne. 


eee 


FALL MANURES. 


After the harvesting is over, we attend to the clearing of our 
barn yards of the manure that has been made in them through 
the summer. All this should be Jaid in large heaps through the 
winter, and covered up with loam to prevent any escape. Some 
farmers carry the fall manures directly on to the lands where they 
are to lie, and lay them in small heaps to be spread in spring. 
This method saves labor, but it injures the manure. Exposure 
through the winter, in small heaps, tends to dry them too much, 
and the winds carry a part of them away. 


MODE OF INCREASING MANURES. 


After the barn yard has been cleared in the fall, the whole sur- 
face should be covered over with loam or peat muck, or soil of 
some kind, that all the liqnid manure of the yard may be caught 
in it and absorbed by it. On many farms, loam from the road 
side may be obtained in sufficient quantities for this purpose, but 
on some farms very little can be found in this situation. Still all 
farms have matter enough on them that may be hauled into the 
yard for manure. 


NOVEMBER 109 


When none can be obtained from the road side, search should 
be made for peat muck in the meadow, or for pond muck in some 
old slough hole, where the plough makes no regular visits. In 
default of all these, resort may be had to the baulks or headlands 
of the fields; for, on old farms, an accumulation of matter will be 
found on the borders of the fields; and the soil, thrown from the 
plough in its turnings at the ends, will be found twice as deep as 
in mid-field. 

This extra soil, piled up near the fence, is never required to 
produce a grain crop, for we sow none so near the border; and 
all this matter is often suffered to lie useless, and worse than use- 
less, for ages, because it serves to make the wall a less sufficient 
fence, burying below the sod the lower tier of rocks. Four or 
five feet in width and one foot in depth, therefore, may be plough- 
ed and taken away from border walls and other fences without 
the least disadvantage to the field from which it is taken, and 
with manifest improvement to the height of the fence. 

All this matter is suitable to be spread throughout the yard, and 
where the stock of cattle is suffered to lie on it for a year, it 
will be found so much improved, that it may be applied to almost 
any crop to advantage. No farmer should think of letting his 
yard remain after the fall manure is carried off, without carting - 
in something or other to increase the manure, besides the litter 
and the orts left by the cattle. 


THANKSGIVING. 


This festival happens usually on the last week in this month, 
and all the fall work should be finished before its arrival, that the 
children may attend the winter schools. Farmers and mechanics 
have now much opportunity for reading in the evening, and 
though the days are short the nights are enough longer to make 
compensation. A little reading, a little labor, and a little reflec- 
tion on the thoughts acquired by reading, are better than a 
constant pursuit of either. 


MILKING COWS IN COLD WEATHER. 


Some farmers let their cows go dry four months in the year, 
but there is no necessity for this. 'The feed in November is not 
succulent, and cows are not so fond of being milked when the 
weather has become cold; it is advisable, at this season, to let 
the cows have warm places to lie in and they will have less ob- 
jection to be milked. Besides, they will yield far more when 
they have a warn place to lie in. They never need to go dry 

10 


- 


110 NOVEMBER. 


more than two months in the year, and if they have been used 
from the first to proper treatment, they will not refuse their milk 
in cold weather. 

If the number of cows that give milk be small, or if from any 
cause it is not convenient to make butter in winter, the cream 
may be saved, and the butter that was made in good season may 
thus be used by the family. In some locations it may be sold to 
advantage, and either of these modes is better than to let cows 
become dry in November. 


SHEEP. 


These animals are exceedingly fond of rambling, and it is 
found difficult to restrain them at this season. They now do 
less injury to the mowing lands than in spring, but we do not 
hold to the doctrine that they make lands rich by feeding on 
them. ‘They scatter some manure it is true, but they gnaw very 
close and get up the best which the soil affords; they help to 
destroy the better grasses by eating them close, and giving room 
to poorer kinds to flourish in their place. 

Sheep will bear a great degree of cold, and they suffer less 
from it than they do from close confinement. Nature has clothed 
them in a warm coat, and no animal suffers more in our climate 
from excessive heat than the sheep. Close confinement is inju- 
rious to the whole animal creation, and more diseases arise from 
the confinement of sheep in close pens or barns than from all 
other causes. Sheep are notoriously gregarious, and this arises 
in some degree from timidity. They huddle and crowd more 
closely together than most animals do, and if to this propensity 
we add confinement in pens and close barns, we need not wonder 
that diseases multiply among them. . 

It has long ago been remarked, that small flocks of sheep were 
more healthy than large ones, and we acoount for this as arising 
from the impurity of the air where large flocks are folded. ‘The 
warmth occasioned by their thick clothing, and their close stow- 
ing together, with the puffing of a thousand breaths in a small 
space renders the air exceedingly impure and unfit for respira 
tion. But as all sheep ought to be allowed a shelter in bad 
weather, the safest mode of keeping them is to separate them 
into small flocks, and in this way they will avoid the pernicious 
effects of bad air. 


NOVEMBER. 111 


NEAT STOCK. 


In some parts of the country farmers are introducing the best 
English stock, and they give high prices for animals of a certain 
pedigree rather than to wait, and, from crosses of our native 
breeds, produce for themselves. This is all well for those who 
have the ability to purchase at high prices, but we, who feel too 
poor to pay $1.000 for a single animal, may be excused if we at- 
tempt to form the most perfect stock from animals that were im- 
ported two hundred years ago. 

The Short Horn Durham is the breed that now attracts most 
attention, and the better opinion is, it is the best kind for beef. 
But we cannot learn that this breed excels our best natives in 
the dairy line, and we think we may as well select from our na- 
tives where the dairy is the principal object. We have the Ayr- 
shire, the Devons, and many kinds without a Christian name, that 
has already been crossed and intermixed until no one can say 
what race they belong to, and we need not care provided they 
ans‘ver our purpose. 

We think it extravagant to talk of introducing any perfect 
breed from any place, for all breeders hold to the doctrine that 
crossing is important, let the breed be what it may. Some of our 
native cows have made fourteen pounds of butter per week, for 
several weeks in succession, and this is about three times as much 
as our cows, through the State, will average. Why then should 
we not procure such as these for breeders at a tenth of the cost 
of foreign varieties? We have been quite too careless in regard 
to selecting. We raise our calves and we keep them for cows, 
without much regarding even the quantity of milk which they 
give, thinking still less of the quality which is every way more 
important. 

We have known men keep cows until they were a dozen years 
old, without making any particular inquiry as to the quality of the 
milk they gave, and it has sometimes happened, that when one 
out of a lot was sold, and the purchaser kept but one cow, he 
would soon discover that the animal was nearly worthless for 
making butter. We should, therefore, be careful to set the milk 
of every cow separate from the rest until we ascertain what is 
the quality of it. We sometimes find, on selling a single cow 
from a lot, that the butter made by the remaining cows is of in- 
ferior quality ; that it is deficient in color, not having that native 
yellow which is a sure sign of goodness. One single cow, there- 
fore, will change the quality and the appearance of the whole 
quantity of butter made from a number of cows. 

It is not an object to rear a large breed of neat stock for the 
dairy; and even for the draft the middle sized cattle are beat 
They are more hardy, and will maintain their integrity on shorter 
allowance better than large cattle. They can feed closer ina 


112 NOVEMBER. 


dry season, and they never require so high a fence. In addition 
to these advantages, as a vast majority of our farmers have not 
work enough for a large yoke of cattle, but yet cannot well dis- 
pense with the ox team, they must have smaller cattle to perform 
the labor of the farm to save expense of keeping. 

Well formed cattle should therefore be selected for the draft 
and for the dairy, and it is a part of the good farmer’s business 
to select these in the first instance, and if they prove not good 
‘ to turn them off for beef and raise more. The Devons have been 
celebrated in England, and it is probable we imported more of 
that kind, on the first settlement of New England, than of any 
other. They have now been crossed and mixed with other races, 
but still we have a great proportion of our stock that bears all 
the marks of the Devon. Their prevailing color is red. They 
are well formed, but are not distinguished for length of body. 
Their heads are larger than we choose for the dairy, but their 
bones are not excessively large. 

The Ayrshire breed is nearly of the same size as the Devon; 
but the neck and the body are longer and more slender; tie 
horns are smaller, and all the bones are more slender than those 
of the Devon. Their bags are large, and they yield as much 
good milk as any race of cows we have seen. Whether the 
Ayrshire breed will prove good in the yoke as the Devon has 
done, we are uncertain. 


os 


THE SUBSOIL PLOUGH. 


The English papers have often made mention of the advan- 
tages of subsoil ploughing ; but we have known of no extensive 
use made of such a plough, in this country. Indeed we have 
but little land in New England, that requires such a plough. 
Soils that require such instruments, are heavy clays, that extend 
deep, and retain an excess of water throngh the season. Insome 
districts, where the surface soil is loamy enough, the subsoil is 
found to be so solid, as to prevent the percolation of the surface 
waters through it. And in such case, a subsoil plongh may ren- 
der essential service. We are not in favor of bringing to the 
surface a very large quantity of the subsoil, in a single year. 
When we do it, we invariably injure our crops, unless we have 
a large quantity of manure to mix in with the mould. 

But the subsoil plough is made without a mould plate, and, fol- 
lowing after the common plough, merely lightens up the hard 
pan, or subsoil, and renders it so porous as to let off all the sur- 
plus water, but never casts any of this cold matter to the surface. 
The probability is, that this process would need to be repeated 
once in afew years, as the clay would naturally settle down 
again, and grow more compact in proportion to the length of 


NOVEMBER. 113 


time it might lie, after ploughing. Sometimes, however, rocks, 
or small stones are found closely imbedded in this clayey sub- 
soil ; and any disturbance, or disarrangement of these, would be 
likely to keep the ground more open for a long time after the 
operation. 

A dozen years ago, we took a fancy to disturb an acre of soil 
to a greater depth than it had ever been before, without bringing 
the subsoil to the surface; for this purpose, we took an old horse 
plough, and broke off the mould plate. Hitching our Dobbin 
to this razee, we followed the track of the main plough, 
and stirred up the soil at least two inches deeper than usual. 
The land on which this was tried, was a good loam, not too re- 
tentive of moisture, and we cannot say whether we received any 
benefit from the subsoil plough. On clayey lands, where the 
water is found to stand, and keep the surface too wet, we think 
such a plough must prove useful. The theory is good. 


PLOUGHING IN NOVEMBER. 


We sometimes use the plough in this month, after our harvest- 
ing is done, and we may as well use the plough now, as at 
another time on very rough lands, that cannot be well turned. 
Such lands must be crossed repeatedly, and we must not apply 
to them the same rules of cultivation, that we apply to old plain 
fields. It has been a practice with some, to sow such lands with 
rye, late in November, and often so late that the seed would not 
vegetate until spring—and good crops have in this way been ob- 
tained. But in general, it is not a good practice, to plough, late 
in the fall, our light soils. We render them too light and bro- 
ken. They become too porous to retain sufficient moisture, and 
the winter winds seem to have an unfavorable effect on them. 
But clayey lands, on the contrary, are made more mellow by this 
operation. ‘They are broken apart by the frosts of winter, and 
the more they can be turned up and exposed to frost, the more 
mellow they are found in spring. In truth, there are clayey soils, 
that cannot be meddled with at certain seasons of the summer. 
When dry, they are flint like, and it is almost impossible to make 
the plough enter. And when wet, if we attempt to putin the 
plough, we plaster up the clay, and make it into mortar—the sun 
dries it afterwards, and it remains in hard lumps through the 
season. We must, therefore, plough these lands when we can, 
whether in June or in November, when they have just enough 
of moisture in them to suffer the plough to enter, and not so 
much as to be liable to be made into mortar. In general, when 
we can choose our time, we should aim to plough when the soil 
has a quantity of green vegetable matter on it; and clayey soils 
are as much yee a8 AY, by the rotting of the roots in the 

10° 


114 NOVEMBER. 


body of them, and the vegetable growth on the surface. he 
decomposition of this matter, breaks apart the tenacious lump, 
and render it fit for the admission of new roots. These clayey 
soils may be bioken in pieces more easily, by the rotting of the 
green crop, ploughed in, than in any other manner. ‘These, with 
sand, or fine gravel, should both be used on a clayey soil, which 
may be made the most valuable of any in the country, when well 
managed. 


ee 


THE HORSE. 


This noble animal is indispensable in our country, notwith- 
standing the modern plans for getting ahead by steam. He is 
useful in so many kinds of gear, and at all seasons, that we should 
feel wholly out of our latitude in many parts of the country, if we 
could not command his services. We use him for the draught, 
for the saddle, &c. through the working days of the week ; and 
on Sunday, when other slaves have their freedom, we compel the 
horse to gallant us to church, and then make him stand out in 
the cold, until service is over, to gallant us home again. When 
well bred, the horse is naturally gentle and kind. He seems to 
love his master, and is willing to work for him, three hundred and 
sixty five days each year, provided he is never forced to travel 
too fast. This fast travelling, and succeeding neglect of the 
horse, is the ruin of his constitution; and when he is confined 
to services of this kind, he never lives out half his days. Horses 
that are driven in stages, seldom last longer than half a dozen 
years, fit for service ; while those which are kept on a farm, and 
usually travel on a walk, will often perform well, until they are 
twenty or twenty five years of age. 

One is grieved to see how this animal is often used through 
the recklessness and desperation of his driver, who has hired 
him for a term. And still more horses are ruined for want of 
good judgment and care, when it is necessary to make them per- 
form an extra day’s labor. There are two important considera- 
tions in the treatment of a horse, in regard to food—one, is the 
quality of the article, and the other, is the proper times of feed- 
ing. As to quality, horses that work but little, will live longer, 
when turned out to pastnre, during summer, than when kept in 
the stable; but they will not perform half the amount of labor. 

When a horse has been unused to grain, it must be given to 
him at first, in moderate quantities, or he will be injured. If it 
is intended that a horse that has not been used to much grain, 
should go a long journey, he ought to be used to eat more grain 
for several days before starting; and, on his journey, grain may 
then be his principal food. We have often travelled long jour- 
neys, and given our horses but very little food besides grain. 


NOVEMBER. 115 


This we have always found cheaper than hay, and by this a horse 
is enabled to perform to the utmost his nature will admit of. 
But when we keep a horse on grain, we must understand when 
to give itto him. We give our horse at night, soon after stop- 
ping, as much grain as he can eat; we turn down into his trough, 
not less than half a bushel of oats, or one peck of corn for his 
night’s feeding. By this treatment, when he has been laboring 
through the day, he is enabled to fill himself soon with food the 
most nourishing to his nature, and in a few hours he affords 
time to lie down, and sleep, and rest his limbs—when his nap is 
over he rises and takes some more grain, eating a little hay with 
it, by way of variety, provided the hay is sweet, and if it is not, 
he will not touch it; and he would eat but little of it in case he 
had no grain—he would go without food, as many a poor horse 
has done, without the knowledge of his master, when put up at 
a poor tavern, after a hard day’s work. 

We have never known a horse injured by eating grain, merely 
on account of his being warm at the time. The common opin- 
ion is different; but it is hard driving, soon after grain has been 
eaten, that overcomes the animal. In our mode of treatment, it 
matters little whether the landlord has good hay or not. We 
can judge better of the quality of grain than of hay; and when 
at a public house we should see the hostler give the grain to the 
horse, and then we know he has not forgotten the service. When 
we have made this provision for the principal staff in our estab- 
lishment, we may take our own rest, and when we have had suf- 
ficient, we rise, and find our horse ready for another day’s labor. 
We are not obliged to wait and stuff him with grain in the morn- 
ing, before starting, by which he would be unfit for an hour or 
two to perform hard service. And yet we-find this the practice 
of many experienced travellers. They willfeed principally with 
hay at night, keeping the horse chewing through the whole of it, 
and giving him no time to lie, and rest;Athen stuff him with 
grain, before starting, which he cannot well digest. 


Ox TEAMS. 


For rough farms, oxen are much to be preferred to horses. 
They travel more steadily, and are more patient on the plough 
than the horse is, and when they have lived long enough, they 
are valuable for the butcher. Oxen will not work so many hours 
in a day, as a horse will, but they are more to be depended on in 
the draught. ‘They bear to be driven about two miles an hour, 
and if they are inclined to go slower than this, they should be 
put up to it. Fewer oxen are now used on farms that are 
cleared of their stumps and stones, than formerly; and for trav- 
elling on the road, the horse is now universally preferred. It is 


116 NOVEMBER. 


not an object, in general, to raise the largest kinds of oxen. 
The middle size is best, and we must take care to choose for 
teams, such as are best built. Though strength is a great point 
in working oxen, we do not prefer those that have the largest 
bones. We notice that those oxen travel best, which have the 
straightest limbs—and we never wish to see an ox, with long 
legs. 

wn a middle size farm one yoke of oxen at least, and one horse 
should be kept. There are many kinds of business, where oxen 
and horses may be used together to advantage—and one of the 
prettiest teams on a farm, is a yoke of oxen and a horse. They 
travel faster than four oxen, and the horse always makes a good 
leader for the team. 


—— 


DRAINS FOR WET LANDS. 


We have numerous lots of interval lands that require to be 
drained before they can be made to yield us their best products. 
The causes of this excessive moisture are various; and the 
remedies to be made use of, must correspond with the nature of 
the evil. Some intervals, consisting of a clammy, heavy soil, 
remain too wet through the early part of the season, merely in 
consequence of the issuing of springs from the side hills that 
surround them. These springs flow over the surface of the in- 
terval land, and cause the sour and poorer grasses to take the 
place of the more valuable kinds. When this is the case, we 
need no under drains to let off the excess of moisture. We 
need only to cast the land into gentle swells, by means of the 
plough—the dead furrow being sufficient to prevent any accumu- 
lation of standing water in the low places. This management 
alone will fit such intervals to receive such top dressings as we 
choose to apply. And these should consist in part, of coarse 
sand or fine gravel, to render the soil more warm. Heavy loams 
should never be mixed in the compost heap, for such grounds. 

Some intervals are too wet through half the season in conse- 
quence of a tenacious, clayey subsoil, which never suffers the 
excessive moisture to percolate down towards the centre of the 
earth. And surface draining is not effectual to take off the sur- 
plus moisture. For such soils, a subsoil plough would prove 
beneficial, and alter in some degree the texture of the pan be- 
neath the natural soil. A subsoil plough is constructed without 
a mould plate; and is made to follow directly in the track of the 
common plough, to stir up and break apart the mass which proved 
impenetrable to the water. It matters not how deep this subsoil 
plough is made to penetrate, as none of the subsoil is throwu to 
the surface, and therefore its poverty, or destitution of vegetable 
matter, will not prove injurious to the surface soil. 


DECEMBER. 


WE have now come to the last month of the year, and we 
must close up our accounts. If the cellar window has not been 
closed, it is now time it was done, and that half barrel of cider 
out at the mill should be housed, or drawn off and put into the 
vinegar barrel. The pigs must have a good mess of straw for 
their bed, for their jackets are not of wool or fir as those of our 
other animals, and they need twice as much covering. They lie 
snug and close, it is true,as any loving couple, but love and 
hugging must not be relied on in cold weather, either as food or 
clothing. 


THE HORSE. 


This faithful servant must have a warm stable, for his coat is 
not so warm as the sheep’s, and then he is sometimes forced to 
violent exercise and perspiration, and when he stops, he requires 
more covering than idle animals. The horse will perform a vast 
deal of labor, when he is well provided for, and it is the best 
policy to keep him well, and keep him employed. He will labor 
every day if he is not over driven; but we injure our horses ex- 
cessively by fast driving. We wear them out in a few years, 
and turn them aside for others. But horses that labor on a farm 
and seldom go faster than a walk, will often perform well for 
twenty years; such is the difference between good and bad 
treatment. A stable under ground is best for a horse both in 
summer and in winter. At this season he is warmer than if he 
stood higher, ard in summer he is cooler, and more free from 
flies. 


HORSE MANURE. 


The manure of the horse is most excellent when it has been 
well secured, but if it is suffered to be carelessly thrown ont, it 
soon heats too much, and becomes nearly worthless. While it 
lies under the horse, and is trod down close, there is no danger 
of its heating; but to save all the liquids, loam or vegetable 
matter should be often thrown under him. In winter, he should 
have a good bed, and should not be suffered to stand on a naked 


floor. 


118 DECEMBER. 


READING FOR FARMERS AND MECHANICS. 


At this season, all classes may, if they choose, devote a portion 
of their time to reading. Those who never read, have no very 
accurate knowledge; their ideas are all acquired by the hearing 
of the ear, and the impression made is less than through the see- 
ing of the eye. Young people, in particular, should improve 
their leisure hours in acquiring the most useful knowledge ; for 
what is now gained, will be useful through life. 


ae 


MATHEMATICAL LEARNING. 


Instead of much light reading, more attention should be paid 
to the exact sciences—to figures. We would have all acquire 
a competent knowledge of history, and to this, young people and 
old are more inclined than to mathematical knowledge. But 
young farmers and mechanics should know enough of first prin- 
ciples, applicable to their occupation, to prevent imposition from 
knowing rogues. 


es 


CUTTING TIMBER. 


Much diversity of opinion prevails on the subject of cutting 
timber. Some insist that June is the best season, when the sap 
is in full flow, and the bark will peel off. Others prefer the win- 
ter season, and they give numerous instances of the durability of 
timbers cut at that time, and they compare it with timber that 
was cut in June, and suffered to lie many weeks without peeling 
the bark off. Instances are given on the other hand, of trees 
that were peeled in June, while standing, and proof is abundant 
of the durability of such timber. When the British evacuated 
Philadelphia, and encamped in New Jersey, they made sad havoc 
with some of the forests in June; and some of the timber which 
was then cut, is stated to have been the most durable of any 
used in that district. Probably these trees were peeled. 

It seems to be agreed that the fore part of winter is better 
than the latter part, to cut trees either for timber or for fire wood, 
and instances are given where wood cut in April, proved far less 
valuable as fuel, than wood cut in December. For building, and 
for fencing, it is important to ascertain which is the best season— 
and it may be, that the time of cutting makes more difference in 
fire wood than we imagine. We find our fire wood in some 
seasons to be much more valuable than in others, and it may be 
owing in part, to the time of cutting. It has been confidently 
asserted, that fence posts when set with the small end in the 
ground, will prove more durable than with the butt end down- 


DECEMBER. 119 


wards, and the reason given, is, that the pores of the wood favor 
the extraction of the sap better, when set in this position. More 
experiments are wanted on this subject. 


———= 


RAIL FENCE. 


In many parts of the country where rocks are not plenty, 
farmers are obliged to make wooden fences, and the time of cut- 
ting the timber for them is important. Posts in particular, in 
some kinds of soil, are very expensive, as they require to be re- 
newed once in four or five years. In clayey ground, they will 
stand a dozen years, and in wet meadows, fifty. When posts 
are used, they should never be put in the ground in a green 
state, notwithstanding they will last longest in wet ground. 
Constant wet from water, will not hurt them, but the fermenta- 
tion of the natural sap in the wood is injurious. When posts 
with three rails are wanted, it is good economy to purchase, or 
to make them a foot longer than the common length, so as to ad- 
mit of their being sharpened at each end. They will last twice 
as long when so cut; and their cost will be but a trifle more 
than that of the common kinds. 

Posts are so. liable to rot and break off, that in some parts of 
the country, where timber is plenty, crooked or worm fences are 
made of rails, without posts. An obtuse angle is made in each 
length of the fence, and the rails are placed one upon another, , 
as children build cob houses; the smallest rails being placed at 
the bottom, and the largest at the top; five rails are thus piled, 
one upon the other. When heavy rails are placed at top, they 
will often remain in place, without staking up, but it is more 
common to set a pair of stakes, at each angle, and tie them to- 
gether at the top, with a withe, or a little yoke. The Virginians 
have very generally used their rails in this manner; and at the 
north, it is called Virginia fence. 

In speaking of the importance of letting timber for posts be- 
come dry, before it is put into the ground, we ought also to name, 
in connexion with it, the importance of suffering the sills of a 
house, and of other buildings, to become dry, before they are 
used. It is true, we now set buildings higher than we formerly 
did, and we take smaller timber for sills; and both these prac- 
tices tend to favor the durability of the timber—yet we are often 
obliged to put in new sills; and this labor may be saved. In an- 
cient times, the largest sticks of timber that could be found, were 
placed at bottom, on the principle of pyramid building—it seems 
to have been supposed that this gave the building strength. And 
it is not uncommon to find, on pulling down an ancient meeting 
house, sills, twelve inches square. There was not only no need 
of such timbers in such a position, but they were not worth half 


120 DECEMBER. 


so much, as timbers of half their size. When the building was 
set low, the sill would never become dry, and the sap would fer- 
ment in it, until it would cause decay. Many of these old houses 
are found to have rotten sills. A stick of timber, eight inches 
square, is better for any building, as a sill, than a stick twelve 
inches square; and the first has not half the number of square 
inches. 


ee 


FORESTS. 


We have cleared up so much of our lands near the sea, that 
we have now but few forests. We have more cleared land than 
we take care of, and we have fewer wood lots than we shall need, 
for a supply of fuel. Rocky lands, that cannot be ploughed, have 
been cleared up, burnt, and sown with grain; and then the own- 
er finds himself unable, after repeated trials, to kill the young 
growth. ‘This is well; we hope he will always be defeated, and 
that such lands may be kept to bear wood. It is folly to clear 
more land, before we take better care of the old lots. 


RAISING CALVES. 


There are different methods adopted by farmers, of rearing 
calves. For many years past, we who live near Boston market, 
have raised but few—we kill them at six or eight weeks old, and 
purchase enough to keep our stock good, in places more distant 
from good markets. But latterly, we have failed to obtain the 
usual supply from Vermont, and New Hampshire, and we have 
been induced to raise them. 

Calves that are nursed by their mothers, are, by some owners, 
suffered to suck through the sammer; others allow them to suck 
three months, and then take them away at onee. Others still, 
let the calves take half the milk, for two or three months, and 
feed the calves with dough. Many contend that it is best to let 
the calf suck no more than two days. They take him away at 
that time, and give him new milk for a while—then skim milk 
with meal in it, and let him have access to a field of grass. 

There is no doubt that a quart of milk, sucked from the cow, 
will make the calf more and better food than any with which he 
can be supplied, in like quantity, in another manner. It is more 
natural for the young animal to be nourished in this mode, and 
as he takes it more slowly into his stomach, than when he drinks 
from the pail, it is less likely to cause uneasiness in the stomach. 
And the bowels also, are kept in better order, than when food is 
administered by artificial means. Still, though we may obtain 
a greater growth of the young animal, by suffering him to suck 


ya 


DECEMBER. 12) 


for many months, we find this mode rather expensive. We can- 
not afford to let a calf have even half of his mother’s milk, 
through the first summer. This, on the average, is worth fifteen 
dollars; and this sum would generally buy two likely calves, 
from the country, one and a half years old. 

Near our large markets, calves are often sold at a week old, 
for one dollar; and there are those who make a business of buy- 
ing and rearing them by hand. These calves are taught to drink 
milk out: of a dish; and when the milk is poor, meal is mixed 
with it, and it is given warm, while the animal is quite young. 
When several are in a yard together, and one of them has learn- 
ed to eat or to drink out of a trough, the others will very soon 
learn from him, how to help themselves, and no labor is spent to 
teach them to drink. As this mode of feeding is not so natural 
for them, as sucking milk from the cow—as the food is sometimes 
too cold for thein—care must be taken, lest they suffer by relax, 
to which they are often subject. To cure this complaint, various 
medicines are administered ; but we have found skim milk, boil- 
ed, to be as good as anything. 


———— 


WINTERING CALVES. 


More attention is required the first winter, than ever after— 
not to keep the calf warm, for he seldom suffers for want of 
warmth, when he is kept from the wet, and we find him getting 
along better in an open shed, or hovel, than when tied up in a 
close barn. But as he has not been used to dry food, the best of 
English hay will not always keep him in good order through a 
long winter. Rowen hay is better suited to his capacity of chew- 
ing, and we always provide a little of that kind, to give him in 
the fore part of winter. He also wants something less dry than 
hay. Roots are excellent food, and he will eat either potatoes or 
turnips, with a good relish.. T'wo quarts of turnips, chopped 
rather fine by a good spade, on the barn floor, given each day, 
will cause him to thrive the whole winter. Whereas, if nothing 
but hay is given, he invariably ceases to advance, and he too of- 
ten goes behind hand. Water should be supplied, and salt should 
never be forgotten. In summer, it is a preventive of relax, and ' 
in winter, it gives a relish to his food. It is worth our while to 
be particular the first winter, and keep the young sprout grow- 
ing. If it isa female, we may save a whole year’s keeping by 
it, for we may let her have a calf one year sooner than she other- 
wise would, and by coming into milk at two, she more often 
proves a good milker. 


11 


122 DECEMBER. 


TREES BY THE WAYSIDE. 


All kinds of trees, by the roadside, are exceedingly pleasant 
for the summer traveller, and when the road runs nearly east and 
west, a tree of any kind, on the south side of it, is not injurious 
to the adjoining fields. Apple trees, in particular, that grow up- 
right, will admit of the growth of good harvests very near them ; 
but there is a very great difference in the spreading of the tops, 
of the various kinds of apple trees, and we want no low and 
spreading branches in the way of the carriages that pass. The 
Baldwin winter apple tree grows up direct, and seldom troubles 
us as the greening does, with horizontal limbs. This may be set 
close to the wall, on the inside of the field, and it will be found 
but little in the way of the owner. 

Trees, set by an old wall, will, on the average, grow twice as 
fast, and bear twice as much fruit, as those set in the middle of a 
field. Rocks lying on the surface of the ground, whether in wall 
or not, always tend to keep the earth more tight than it otherwise 
would be. If, therefore, a farmer will set a row of Baldwins on 
the south side of the street, he will accomplish several honora- 
ble objects at the same time—he will ornament the road, 2nd his 
own field, and he will afford the field protection from ti:e high 
winds when it is covered with grain—he will prepare for himself 
an orchard worth more than any one he can have on his farm, for 
it will need less ploughing, and less care—he will have better 
fruit in proportion, as his trees are more thrifty—he will have 
more of it in proportion to the ground occupied, for the trec, set 
close to the wall, casts less than half its shade on his own land. 
If he loses one half of the fruit, he can well afford it, for he will 
obtain more from the other half, than he would from a whole tree 
differently situated. But this is winter fruit, and if he picks it in 
good season, he will secure nearly the whole of it. While an 
early sweeting, therefore, might prove a nuisance to him by the 
roadside, he may make more profit from good winter trees plant- 
ed here, than in any place he could select on his farm. 


— 


CLEARING NEW LANDS. 


In many parts of the country, we have but little to do with 
clearing; we have already, more cleared ground than we take 
care of, and it would have been better for the country, if we had 
left more spare for wood and timber. In old countries, forests 
have been planted at great expense ; large trees have been taken 
up, and removed, and all this has been incurred because too much 
ground was once cleared up. It is expensive, planting a,new 
forest, after the land has been quite cleared of the old roots and ; 
atumps, and the growth of the newly planted trees will not com- 


DECEMBER. 123 


pare with young shoots that spring from a young green stump in 
the ground. 

The modern practice of cutting clean, in lieu of selecting out 
the oldest trees from the midst of the lot, is a great improvement. 
In this way we avoid crushing down the undergrowth, by the 
falling of the old trees, and we give all new shoots an equal 
chance to start and grow together. Besides, when we leave a 
forest to become quite old, we find but few shoots from the stumps 
after clearing. We ought, therefore, to cut for wood as often as 
we find a suitable growth; and a new forest springs up- rapidly 
from the stumps, and is ready to be cut for wood in twenty years. 
For timber, we must let a portion of the forest stand longer. 

In former times, we used a large, heavy plough, on lands new- 
ly cleared, drawn by twenty oxen; and this would sometimes 
turn a furrow a foot in depth, and bring up all the vegetable 
mould so deep that it could not be of use for some years. The 
principal object seemed to be to kill the shrub oaks, by drawing 
out the roots. In latter years, we subdue new lands at less ex- 
pense. After letting the fire run over the lot that has been clear- 
ed, we often throw on our grain in autumn, and cover it deep 
enough with a large iron tooth harrow. When we have a tough 
sward, and fear we shall not bury the seed deep enough, we use 
a small plough, drawn by one yoke of oxen, and with these, we 
scratch up mould enough to bury the grain. 

When we want the land for pasturing, we sow on a variety of 
seeds with the grain, and we knock off the sprouts from the 
stumps after two years growth, in preference to an earlier season, 
as we find we are thus more likely to kill them. If we succeed 
in killing the bushes, and in covering the land with grass, with- 
out disturbing the soil to any great depth, we obtain better feed 
for many years, than we can have by deep ploughing; the roots 
and fibres that filled the earth under the growth of wood, gradu- 
ally decaying, and rendering the soil mcre capable of sustaining 
the future growth of grass. 

In Mississippi, and some other new States, the large trees are 
not cut down at the first clearing, but are girdled, and then suf- 
fered to stand for many years; while the smaller growth is clear- 
ed up, and burned, and then the land is planted with corn, or with 
cotton ; and the rotting bark, and falling limbs of the trees, serve 
in some degree, to manure, and keep the soil light. When a tree 
is girdled, it is not so likely to send out new shoots, as when it is 
severed from the stump—but in new countries, where the wood 
has never been cleared, farmers are not often troubled with these 
sprouts, and their object in letting the largest trees stand, is to 
gain time. They plant as soon as they can clear away the un- 
derwood, and they clear off the old standards at their leisure. 


124 ‘DECEMBER 


ON MANOURES. 


Various are the materials of which manure heaps may be form- 
ed, and those of most importance, are what are called animal 
manures. They are the most efficacious of any, and as they 
abound in all farming countries, they are of the first importance. 
Horses, neat stock, sheep, hogs, poultry, and all animals, give us 
the means of making up the compost heap, and a little care on 
our part, will turn this to good account. 

In the management of these manures, two errors are to be cau- 
tiously avoided—the one is that of too much exposure—the other 
is the opposite extreme of suffering the accumulated mass to be- 
come too much heated. ‘The first error scatters the salts to the 
winds by open exposure—the sward converts-the essence of the 
manure to gas, through the internal heat generated in a great 
mass of matter heaped together. ‘'o avoid both these evils, the 
safest mode we have yet found, is to gather the animal manure 
into piles, and to intermix with it, other matter snfficient to pre- 
vent its over heating—matter enough to absorb the gases that 
would otherwise escape. Peat muck, therefore, which consists 
almost entirely of vegetable matter, is often mixed with the ani- 
mal matter, and the whole mass is far better to be applied to 
lands, than vither component part would be in its unmixed state. 

When air is effectually excluded, there is no danger of the 
burning of any mass of animal, or other manure, And we often 
preserve it under our horses, and our cattle, by strewing on litter, 
and suffering the animals to tread it down close. In open yards, 
we spread on loam, straw, or coarse hay, to check evaporation, 
and the less the manure is stirred, the less likely are the gases to 
escape. Whenever they are overhauled, care must be taken that 
other matter in sufficient quuantity, be mixed with them, Loam 
is as good as peat to be mixed with the manure, and we take this 
when we have a supply of it, to cover up our heaps. 


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